THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

BOUNDARIES.] BOUNDED north and east, by British Amer­ica, or the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and New Brunswick; south east, by the Atlantic ocean; south, by East and West Florida; west, by the river Missisippi.

In the treaty of peace, concluded in 1783, the limits of the Ameri­can United States are more particularly defined in the words follow­ing. "And that all disputes which might arise in future on the sub­ject of the boundaries of the said United States may be prevented, it is hereby agreed and declared, that the following are and shall be their boundaries, viz. From the north west angle of Nova Scotia, viz. That angle which is formed by a line drawn due north from the source of St. Croix River to the Highlands, along the said Highlands, which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St. Lawrence, from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the north westernmost head of Connecticut river; thence down along the mid­dle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude; from thence by a line due west on said latitude, until it strikes the river Iro­quois or Cataraqui; thence along the middle of the said river into Lake Ontario; through the middle of said lake, until it strikes the communication by water between that lake and Lake Erie; thence along the middle of said communication into Lake Erie, through the middle of said lake, until it arrives at the water communication be­tween that lake and Lake Huron; thence through the middle of said lake to the water communication between that lake and Lake Superior; thence through Lake Superior, northward of the Isles Royal and Phil­lipeaux, to the Long Lake; thence through the middle of said Long Lake, and the water communication between it and the Lake of the Woods, to the said lake of the Woods; thence through the said lake to the most northwestern point thereof, and from thence, on a due west course, to the River Missisippi; thence by a line to be drawn along the middle of said River Missisippi, until it shall intersect the northernmost part of the thirty-first degree of north latitude.

"South, by a line to be drawn due east from the determination of the line last mentioned, in the latitude of thirty-one degrees north of the equator, to the middle of the River Apalachichola, or Catahouche; thence along the middle thereof to its junction with the Flint River; thence strait to the head of St. Mary's River; and thence down along the middle of St. Mary's River to the Atlantic Ocean.

"East by a line to be drawn along the middle of the River St. Croix [Page 148] from its mouth, in the Bay of Fundy, to its source, and from its source directly north, to the aforesaid Highlands, which divide, the rivers that fall into the Atlantic Ocean, from those which fall into the River St. Lawrence; comprehending all islands within twenty leagues of [...] part of the shores of the United States, and lying between lines to be drawn due east from the points where the aforesaid boundaries between Nova Scotia on the one part, and East Florida on the other, shall re­spectively touch the Bay of Fundy and the Atlantic Ocean, excepting such islands as now are, or heretofore have been, within the limits of the said province of Nova Scotia."

The territory of the United States, according to Mr. Hutchins, con­tains, by computation, a million of square miles, in which are

That part of the United States, comprehended between the west boundary line of Pennsylvania, on the east; the boundary line between Great Britain and the United States, extending from the river St. Croix to the northwest extremity of the Lake of the Woods, on the north; the river Missisippi, to the mouth of the Ohio, on the west; and the river Ohio on the south, to the aforementioned bounds of Penn­sylvania, contains, by computation, about 411,000 square, miles▪ in which are

The whole of this immense extent of unappropriated western terri­tory, containing, as above stated, 220,000,000 of acres, and several large tracts south of the Ohio, ^* have been, by the cession of some of the original thirteen states, and by the treaty of peace, transferred to the federal government, and are pledged as a fund for sinking the [...] of the United States. Of this territory the Indians now possess a ve­ry large proportion. Mr. Jefferson, in his report to congress, Nov. [...], 1791, describes the boundary line between us and the Indians, as fol­lows; "Beginning at the mouth of the Cayahoga (which falls into the southernmost part of Lake Erie) and running up the river to the portage, between that and the Tuscarora (or N. E.) branch of the Muskingum; then down the said branch to the forks, at the crossing place above fort Lawrence; then westwardly, towards the portage of the Great Miami, to the main branch of that river; then down the Mi [...]i, to the fork of that river, next below the old fort, which was taken by the French, in 1752; thence due west to the river De la [...] (a branch of the Wabash) and down that river to the Wabash. So for the line is precisely determined, and cleared of the claims of the In­dians. The tract comprehending the whole country within the above described line, the Wabash, the Ohio, and the western limits of Penn­sylvania, contains about 55,000 square miles. How far on the [...] ­ern side of the Wabash, the southern boundary of the Indians [...] been defined, we known not. It is only understood in general, that their [Page 149] title to the lower country, between that river and the Illinois, was formerly extinguished by the French, while in their possession."

LAKES.] It may in truth be said, that no part of the world is so well watered with springs, rivulets, rivers, and lakes, as the territory of the United States. By means of these various streams and collections of water, the whole country is checkered into islands and peninsulas. The United States, and indeed all parts of North America, seem to have been formed by nature for the most intimate union. The facilities of navigation, render the communication be­tween the ports of Georgia and New-Hampshire, far more expeditious and practicable, than between these of Provence and Picardy in France; Cornwall and Caithness, in Great Britain; of Gallicia and Catalonia, in Spain. The Canals proposed between Susquehannah and Dela­ware, between Pasquetank and Elizabeth rivers, in Virginia, and be­tween [Page 150] the Schuylkill and Susquehannah, will open a communication from the Carolinas to the western counties of Pennsylvania and New­York. The improvements of the Potomak, will give a passage from the southern States, to the western parts of Virginia, Maryland, Penn­sylvania, and even to the lakes. From Detroit, to Alexandria, of the Potomak, six hundred and seven miles, are but two carrying places, which together do not exceed the distance of forty miles. The [...] of Delaware and Chesapeek, will open the communication from South Carolina, to New Jersey, Delaware, the most populous parts of Penn­sylvania, and the midland counties of New York. Were these, and the proposed canal between Ashley and Cooper rivers, in S. Caroli­na—the canals in the northern parts of the state of New York, and those of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, all opened, North Amer­ica would thereby be converted into a cluster of large and fertile isl­ands, communicating with each other with ease and little expense, and in many instances without the uncertainty or danger of the seas.

There is nothing in other parts of the globe, which resembles the prodigious chain of lakes in this part of the world. They may pro­perly be termed inland seas of fresh water; and even those of the se­cond or third class in magnitude, are of larger circuit than the great­est lake in the eastern continent. Some of the most northern lakes belonging to the United States, have never been surveyed, or even visited by white people; of course we have nor description of them which can be relied on as accurate. Others have been partially su­rveyed and their relative situation determined. The best account of them which we have been able to procure is as follows.

The Lake of the Woods, the most northern in the United States, is so called from the large quantities of wood growing on its banks; such as oaks, pines, firs, spruce, &c. This lake lies nearly east of the south end of the Lake Winnepeek, and is supposed to be the source or conductor of one branch of the river Bourbon, if there by such a riv­er. Its length from east to west is said to be about seventy miles, and in some places it is forty miles wide. The Killistinoe Indians encamp on its borders to fish and hunt. This lake is the communica­tion between the Lakes Winnepeek and Bourbon, and Lake Supe­rior.

Rainy, or Long Lake, lies east of the Lake of the Woods, and i [...] said to be nearly and hundred miles long, and in no part more than twenty miles wide.

Eastward of this lake, lie several small ones, which extend in a string to the great carrying place, and thence into Lake Superior. Be­tween these little lakes are several carrying places, which render the trade to the north west di [...]cult, and exceedingly tedious, as it takes two years to make one voyage from Michillimakkinak to these parts.

Lake Superior, formerly termed the Upper Lake, from its northern situation, is so called from its magnitude, it being the largest on the continent. It may justly be termed the Caspian of America, and, i [...] supposed to be the largest body of fresh water on the globe. According to the French charts, it is 1500 miles in circumference. A great part of the coast is bounded by rocks and uneven ground. The water is pure and transparent, and appears generally, through the lake, to lie upon a bed of huge rocks. It has been remarked, in regard to the [Page 151] waters of this lake, with how much truth I pretend not to say, that although their surface, during the heat of summer, is impregnated with no small degree of warmth, yet on letting down a cup to the depth of about a fathom, the water drawn from thence is cool and refreshing.

The situation of this lake, from the most accurate observations which have come to our knowledge, lies between forty-six and fifty degrees of north latitude, and between nine and eighteen degrees of west lon­gitude from the meridian of Philadelphia.

There are many islands in this lake, two of them have each land enough, if proper for cultivation, to form a considerable province; especially Isle Royal, which is not less than an hundred miles long, and in many places forty broad. The natives suppose these islands are the residence of the Great Spirit.

Two large rivers empty themselves into this lake, on the north and northeast side; one is called the Nipegon, which leads to a tribe of the chipeways, who inhabit a lake of the same name, and the other is the Mschipicooton river, the source of which is towards James' Bay, from whence there is said to be but a short portage to another river, which empties itself into that bay.

Not far from the Nipegon is a small river, that, just before it enters the lake, has a perpendicular fall from the top of a mountain, of more than a hundred feet. It is very narrow, and appears at a distance like a white garter suspended in the air. There are upwards of thirty oth­er rivers, which empty into this lake, some of which are of a consider­able size. On the south side of it is a remarkable point or cape of about sixty miles in length, called point Chegomegan. About an hundred miles west of this cape, a considerable river falls into the lake, the head of which is composed of a great assemblage of small streams. This river is remarkable for the abundance of virgin copper that is found on and near its banks. Many small islands, particularly on the eastern shores, abound with copper ore lying in beds, with the appearance of cop­peras. This metal might be easily made a very advantageous article of commerce. This lake abounds with fish, particularly trout and stur­geon; the former weigh from twelve to fifty pounds, and are caught almost any season of the year in great plenty. Storms affect this lake as much as they do the Atlantic Ocean; the waves run as high, and the navigation is equally dangerous. It discharges its waters from the south east corner, through the Straits of St. Marie, which are about forty miles long. Near the upper end of these Straits is a rapid, which though it is impossible for canoes to ascend, yet, when con­ducted by careful pilots, may be descended without danger.

Though Lake Superior is supplied by near forty rivers, many of which are large, yet it does not appear that one tenth part of the waters which are conveyed into it by these rivers, is discharges by the a­bovementioned strait. Such a superabundance of water can be dis­posed of only by evaporation. ^* The entrance into this lake from the [Page 152] straits of St. Marie, affords one of the most pleasing prospects in the world. On the left may be seen many beautiful little islands that [...] ­tend a considerable way before you; and on the right, an [...] succession of small points of land, that project a little way in [...] [...] water, and contribute, with the islands, to render this delightful [...] calm, and secure from those tempestuous winds, by which the [...] ­ing lake is frequently troubled.

Lake Huron, into which you enter through the straits of St. [...] is next in magnitude to lake Superior. It lies between 43° 30′ and [...] 30' of north latitude, and between six and eight degrees west [...] ­tude. Its circumference is about one thousand miles. On the sou [...] side of this lake is an island called Manataulin, signifying a pla [...] of spirits, and is considered as sacred by the Indians. On the southern part of this lake is Saganaum Bay, about eighty miles in length and about eighteen or twenty miles broad. Thunder Bay, so called [...] the thunder that is frequently heard here, lies about half way be­tween Saganaum Bay and the north west corner of the lake. It is [...] nine miles across either way. The fish are the same as in Lake Supe­rior. At the northwest corner this Lake communicates with [...] Michigan, by the Straits of Michillimakkinak.

The Chipeway Indians live scattered around this lake; particularly near Saganaum Bay. On its banks are found amazing quantities of [...] cherries.

Michigan Lake lies between latitude 42° 10′ and 46° 30′ north▪ and between 11° and 13° west long▪ from Philadelphia. Its compound length is 280 miles, from north to south; its breadth from 60 to [...] miles. It is navigable for shipping of any burthen; and at the [...] eastern part communicates with Lake Huron, by a strait six miles broad, on the south side of which stands fort Michillimakki [...]; which is the name of the strait. In this lake are several kinds of fish, particularly trout of an excellent quality, weighing from 20 to 60 pounds, and some have been taken in the Straits of Michillimakki [...], of 90 pounds. Westward of this lake are large meadows, said to [...] ­tend to the Missisippi. It receives a number of rivers from the west and east, among which is the river St. Joseph, very rapid and full of islands; it springs from a number of small lakes, a little to the north­west of the Miami village, and runs northwest into the southeast [...] [Page 153] of the lake. On the north side of this river is fort St. Joseph, from which there is a road, bearing north of east, to Detroit. The Powte­ [...]atamie Indians, who have about 200 fighting men, inhabit this river opposite fort St. Joseph.

Between Lake Michigan on the west, and Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and the west end of Erie on the east, is a fine tract of country, peninsulated, more than 250 miles in length, and from 150 to 200 in breadth. The banks of the lakes, for a few miles, inland, are sandy and barren, producing a few pines, shrub oaks and cedars.—Back of this, from either lake, the timber is heavy and good and the soil lux­uriant.

Lake St. Clair lies about half way between Lake Huron and Lake Erie, and is about ninety miles in circumference. It receives the wa­ters of the three great lakes, Superior, Michigan and Huron, and dis­chares them through the river or strait, called Detroit, (which is in French, the Strait) into Lake Erie. This lake is of an oval form, and navigable for large vessels. The fort of Detroit is situated on the western bank of the river of the same name, about nine miles below Lake St. Clair. The settlements are extended on both sides of the strait or river, for many miles towards Lake Erie, and some few above the fort.

Lake Erie is situated between forty-one and forty-three degrees of north latitude, and between 3° 40′ and 8° degrees west longitude. It is nearly three hundred miles long, from east to west, and about for­ty, in its broadest part. A point of land projects from the north side into this lake, several miles, towards the southeast, called Long Point. The islands and banks towards the west end of the lake are so inse [...]ted with rattle-snakes, as to render it dangerous to land on them. The lake is covered near the banks of the islands with the large pond lily, the leaves of which lie one the surface of the water so thick, as to cover it entirely for many acres together; on these, in the summer season, lie myri [...]ds of water-snakes basking in the sun. Of the ven­omous serpents which infest this lake, the hissing snake is the most re­markable. It is about eighteen inches long, small and speckled. When you approach it, it flattens itself in a moment, and its spots, which are of various colours, become visibly brighter through rage; at the same time it blows from its mouth, with great force, a subtile wind, said to be of a nauseous smell; and if drawn in with the breath of the unwary traveller, will infallibly bring on a decline, that in a few months must prove mortal. No remedy has yet been found to coun­teract its baneful influence. This lake is of a more dangerous naviga­tion than any of the others, on account of the craggy rocks which project into the water, in a perpendicular direction, many miles toge­ther from the northern shore, affording no shelter from storms.

Presque Isle is on the southeast shore of this Lake, about lat.4 [...]° 10′. From this to Fort Le Beuf, on French creek, is a portage of 15 miles. About 20 miles northeast of this is another portage of 9 [...] miles between Chatoughque Creek, emptying into Lake Erie, and Chatough­que Lake, a water of Allegany river.

Fort Erie stands on the northern shore of Lake Erie, and the [...] bank of Niagara river, in Upper Canada. This lake, at its northeast end, communicates with Lake Ontario, by the river Niagara which runs from south to north, about 30 miles, including its windings▪ [...] ­bracing in its course, Grand Island, and [...] [Page 154] from the east. About the middle of this river, are the cele [...] falls of Niagara, which are reckoned one of the greatest natural curi­osities in the world. The waters which supply the river Niagara [...] near two thousand miles to the northwest, and passing through [...] lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron and Erie, receiving in their c [...]se, constant accumulations, at length, with astonishing grandeur, and down a stupendous precipice of 150 feet perpendicular; and [...] strong rapid, that extends to the distance of eight or nine miles [...] fall near as much more; the river then loses itself in Lake Ontario. The noise of these falls, in a clear day and fair wind, may be [...] between forty and fifty miles. When the water strikes the bottom [...] its spray rises a great height in the air, occasioning a thick cloud of vapours, in which, when the sun shines, may be seen, morning and evening, a beautiful rainbow. Fort Niagara, is situated on the [...] of Niagara river, at its entrance into Lake Ontario. This [...] that at Detroit, contrary to the treaty of 1783, are yet in the possession of the British Government.

Lake Ontario is situated between forty-three and forty-five degree north latitude, and between one and five degrees west longitude. [...] form is nearly oval. Its greatest length is from southwest to north­east, and its circumference about six hundred miles. It abounds with fish of an excellent slavour, among which are the Oswego bass, weigh­ing three or four pounds. It receives the waters of the [...] river from the south, and of Onondago, at Fort Oswego, from the southeast, by which it communicates, through Lake Oneida, and Wood Creek, with Mohawk river. On the northeast, this lake dis­charges itself through the river Cataraqui, (which at Montreal, [...] the name of St. Lawrence) into the Atlantic ocean.

About 8 miles from the west end of Lake Ontario, is a curious cavern, which the Messisaugas Indians call Manito ah wigwam, or house of the Devil. The mountains which border on the lake, at this place, break off abruptly, and form a precipice of 200 feet perpendicular de­scent; at the bottom of which the cavern begins. The first open­ing is large enough for three men conveniently to walk abreast. It continues of this bigness for 70 yards in a horizontal direction. Then it falls almost perpendicularly 50 yards, which may be descended by irregular steps from one to four feet distant from each other. It then continues 40 yards horizontally, at the end of which is another per­pendicular descent, down which there are no steps. The cold here is intense. In spring and autumn, there are, once in about a week, explosions from this cavern, which shake the ground for 16 miles round.

Lake Champlain is next in size to Lake Ontario, and lies nearly east from it, forming a part of the dividing line between the State of New York and the State of Vermont. It took its name from a French Governor, whose name was Champlain, who was drowned in it. It was before called Corlaers Lake. It is about eighty miles in length from north to south, and in its broadest part fourteen. It is well s [...] ­ed with fish, and the land on its borders, and on the banks of its riv­ers, is good. Crown Point and Ticonderoga, are situated on the bank of this lake, near the southern part of it.

Lake George, lies to the southward of Champlain, and is a most clear, beautiful collection of water, 36 miles long and from 1 to [...] miles wide. It embosoms more than 200 islands, some say 365; very [Page 155] few of which, are any thing more than barren rock, covered with heath, and a sew cedar, spruce and hemlock trees and shrubs, and abundance of rattle snakes. On each side it is skirted by prodigious mountains, from which large quantities of red cedar are every year carried to New York for ship timber. The lake is full of fishes, and some of the best kind; among which are the black or Oswego bass and large speckled trouts. The water of this lake is about 100 feet above the level of Lake Champlain. The portage between the two lakes is one mile and a half; but with a small expense might be reduced to 60 yards; and with one or two locks might be made navigable through, for batteaux. This lake, in the French charts, is called Lake St. Sa­crament; and it is said that the Roman Catholics, in former times, were at the pains to procure this water for sacramental uses in all their churches in Canada: hence probably it derived its name.

RIVERS.] The Missisippi receives the waters of the Ohio and Illi­nois, and their numerous branches from the east; and of the Missouri and other rivers from the west. These mighty streams united, are borne down with increasing majesty, through vast forests and meadows, and dis­charged into the Gulf of Mexico. The great length and uncommon depth of this river, says Mr. Hutchins, and the excessive muddiness and salu­brious quality of its waters, after its junction with the Missouri, are very singular. ^* The direction of the channel is so crooked, that from New Orleans to the mouth of the Ohio, a distance which does not exceed four hundred and sixty miles in a strait line, is about eight hun­dred and fifty-six by water. It may be shortened at least two hundred and fifty miles, by cutting across eight or ten necks of land, some of which are not thirty yards wide. Charlevoix relates that in the year 1722, at Point Coupee or Cut Point, the river made a great turn, and some Canadians, by deepening the channel of a small brook, diverted the waters of the river into it. The impetuosity of the stream was so violent, and the soil of so rich and loose a quality, that, in a short time the point was entirly cut through, and travellers saved fourteen leagues of their voyage. The old bed has no water in it, the times of the periodical overflowings only excepted. The new channel has been since sounded with a line of thirty fathoms, without finding bot­tom. Several other points, of great extent, have, in like manner, been since cut off, and the river diverted into new channels.

In the spring floods the Missisippi is very high, and the current so strong that it is with difficulty it can be ascended; but this disadvan­tage is remedied in some measure by eddies or counter currents, which are generally found in the bends close to the banks of the river, and assist the ascending boats. The current at this season descends at the rate of about five miles an hour. In autumn, when the waters are low, it does not run faster than two miles, but it is rapid in such parts of the river, as have clusters of islands, shoals and sand banks. The [Page 156] circumference of many of these shoals being several miles, the [...] is longer and in some parts more dangerous than in the spring. [...] merchandize necessary for the commerce of the upper settlements [...] near the Missisippi, is conveyed in the spring and autumn in [...] rowed by eighteen or twenty men, and carrying about sorty [...] From New Orleans to the Illinois, the voyage is commonly per [...] in eight or ten weeks. A prodigious number of islands, some of [...] are of great extent, intersperse that mighty river. Its waters, [...] overflowing its banks below the river lbberville on the east, and [...] river Rouge on the west, never return within them again, there [...] many outlets or streams, by which they are conducted into the [...] Mexico, more especially on the west side of the Missisippi, [...] the country into numerous islands. These singularities distinguish [...] from every other known river in the world. Below the Ibberville the land begins to be very low on both sides of the river, across the country, and gradually declines as it approaches nearer to the [...]. The island of New Orleans, and the lands opposite, are to all appear­ance of no long date; for in digging ever so little below the surface, you find water and great quantities of trees. The many beeches and breakers, as well as [...]nlets, which have arisen out of the channel with [...] the last half century, at the several mouths of the river, are convi [...] proofs that this peninsula was wholly formed in the same manner. And it is certain that when La Salle sailed down the Missisippi [...] the sea, the opening of that river was very different from what it [...] at present.

The nearer you approach to the sea, this truth becomes more [...] ­ing. The bars that cross most of these small channels, opened by the current, have been multiplied by means of the trees carried down with the streams▪ one of which, stopped by its roots or branches in a shal­low part, is sufficient to obstruct the passage of thousands more, and to fix them at the same place. Astonishing collections of trees [...] daily seen in passing between the Balize and the Missouri. No human force is sufficient to remove them, and the mud carried down by the river serves to bind and cement them together. They are gradually covered, and every inundation not only extends their length and breadth, but adds another layer to their height. In less than ten years time, canes, shrubs and aquatick timber grow on them, and form [...] and islands, which forcibly shift the bed of the river.

Nothing can be asserted with certainty, respecting the length of this river. Its source is not known, but supposed to be upwards of three thousand miles from the sea as the river runs. We only know, that from St. Antony's falls in lat. 43° it glides with a pleasant clear c [...] ­ [...]ent, and receives many large and very extensive tributary streams, be­fore its junction with the Missouri, without greatly increasing the breadth of the Missisippi, though they do its depth and rapidity. The muddy waters of the Missouri discolour the lower part of the river, till it empties into the Bay of Mexico. The Missouri is a longe [...], broader, and deeper river than the Missisippi, and affords a more ex­tensive navigation; it is in fact the principal river, contributing [...] [...]o the common stream than does the Missisippi. It has been ascend­ed by French traders about twelve or thirteen hundred miles, and [...] the depth of water, and breadth of the river at that distance, it app [...] ­ed to be navigable many miles further.

[Page 157] From the Missouri river, to nearly opposite the Ohio, the western bank of the Missisippi, is (some few places excepted) higher than the eastern. From Mine au fer, to the Ibberville, the eastern bank is high­er than the western, on which there is not a single discernible rising or eminence, the distance of seven hundred and fifty miles. From the Ibberville to the sea, there are no eminences on either side, though the eastern bank appears rather the highest of the two, as far as the English turn. Thence the banks gradually diminish in height to the mouths of the river, where they are but a few feet higher than the common surface of the water.

The slime which the annual floods of the river Missisippi leaves on the surface of the adjacent shores, may be compared with that of the Nile, which deposits a similar manure, and for many centuries past has insured the fertility of Egypt. When its banks shall have been cultivated, as the excellency of its soil and temperature of the climate deserve, its population will equal that of any other part of the world. The trade, wealth and power of America, may, at some future pe­riod, depend, and perhaps centre upon the Missisippi. This also re­sembles the Nile in the number of its mouths, all issuing into a sea that may be compared to the Mediterranean, which is bounded on the north and south by the two continents of Europe and Africa, as the Mexican bay is by North and South America. The smaller mouths of this river might be easily stopped up, by means of those floating trees with which the river, during the floods, is always covered. The whole force of the channel being united, the only opening then left would probably grow deep and the bar be removed.

Whoever for a moment, will cast his eye over a map of the town of New Orleans, and the immense country around it, and view its ad­vantageous situation, must be convinced that it, or some place near it, must, in process of time, become one of the greatest marts in the world.

The falls of St. Anthony, in about latitude 45°, received their name from Father Lewis Hennipin, a French missionary, who travelled in­to these parts about the year 1680, and was the first European ever seen by the natives. The whole river, which is more than 250 yards wide, falls perpendicularly about thirty feet, and forms a most pleasing cataract. The rapids below, in the space of three hundred yards, ren­der the descent considerably greater; so that when viewed at a distance, they appear to be much higher than they really are. In the middle of the falls is a small island, about forty feet broad, and somewhat longer, on which grow a few cragged hemlock and spruce trees; and about half way between this island and the eastern shore is a rock, lying at the very edge of the fall, in an oblique position, five or six feet broad, and thirty or forty long. These falls are peculiarly sit­uated, as they are approacable without the least obstruction from any intervening [...]ill or precipice, which cannot be said of any other con­siderable fall, perhaps in the world. The country around is exceed­ingly beautiful. It is not an uninterrupted plain, where the eye finds no relief, but composed of many gentle ascents, which in the spring and summer, are covered with verdure, and interspersed with little groves, that give a pleasing variety to the prospect.

A little distance below the falls, is a small island of about an acre and an half, on which grow a great number of oak trees, almost all the [Page 158] branches of which, able to bear the weight, are, in the proper season of the year, loaded with eagle's nests. Their instinctive wisdom [...] taught them to choose this place, as it is secure, on account of the [...] ­ids above, from the attacks of either man or beast.

From the best accounts that can be obtained from the Indians, we learn that the four most capital rivers on the continent of North A­merica, viz. The St. Lawrence, the Missisippi, the river [...] and the Oregon, or the river of the West, have their sources in [...] same neighbourhood. The waters of the three former, are said [...] within thirty miles of each other; the latter is rather farther west.

This shews that these parts are the highest lands in North America▪ and it is an instance not to be paralleled in the other three quarte [...] of the globe, that four rivers of such magnitude should take their [...] to­gether, and each, after running separate courses, discharge their [...] into different oceans, at the distance of more than two thousand miles from their sources. For in their passage from this spot to the bay [...] St. Lawrence, east; to the bay of Mexico, south; to Hudson's Bay, north; and to the bay at the straits of Annian, west; where the [...] Oregon is supposed to empty, each of them traverses upwards of [...] thousand miles.

The Ohio is a most beautiful river. Its current gentle, waters clea [...] and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. It is one quarter of a mile wide at Fort Pitt: [...] hundred yards at the mouth of the Great Kanhaway: 1200 yards [...] Louisville; and the rapids, half a mile, in some few places below Louisville: but its general breadth does not exceed 600 yards. [...] some places its width is not 400, and in one place particularly, [...] below the rapids, it is less than 300. Its breadth in no one place [...] ­ceeds 1200 yards, and at its junction with the Missisippi, neither river is more than 900 yards wide. ^*

Its length, as measured according to its meanders by Capt. Hutchin [...], is as follows:

[Page 159] In common winter and spring floods, it affords 30 or 40 feet water to Louisville, 25 or 30 feet to La Tarte's rapids, forty miles above the mouth of the great Kanhaway, and a sufficiency at all times for light batteaux and canoes to Fort Pitt. The rapids are in latitude 38° 8′. The inundations of this river begin about the last of March, and sub­side in July, although they frequently happen in other months, so that boats which carry 300 barrels of flour, from the Monongahela, or Youhiogany, above Pittsburg, have seldom long to wait for water only. During these floods a first rate man of war may be carried from Louis­ville to New Orleans, if the sudden turns of the river and the strength of its current will admit a safe steerage; and it is the opinion of Col. Morgan, who has had all the means of information, that a vessel pro­perly built for the sea, to draw 1 [...] feet water, when loaded, and carry­ing from 12 to 1600 barrels of flour, may be more easily, cheaply and safely navigated from Pittsburg to the sea, than those now in use; and that this matter only requires one man of capacity and enterprize to ascertain it. He observes that a vessel intended to be rigged as a brig­antine, snow, or ship, should be double decked, take her masts on deck, and be rowed to the Ibberville, below which are no islands, or to New Orleans, with 20 men, so as to afford reliefs of 10 and 10 in the night. Such a vessel, without the use of oars, he says, would float to New Orleans, from Pittsburg, in 20 times 24 hours. If this be so, what a­ [...]greeable prospects are presented to our brethren and fellow citizens, in the western country.

The rapids at Louisville descend about 10 feet in a length of a mile and a half. The bed of the river there is a solid rock, and is divided by an island into two branches, the southern of which is about two hun­dred yards wide, but impassable in dry seasons. The bed of the northern branch is worn into channels by the constant course of the water, and attrition of the pebble stones carried on with that, so as to be pass­able for batteaux through the greater part of the year. Yet it is thought that the southern arm may be most easily opened for constant navi­gation. The rise of the waters in these rapids does not exceed 20 or 25 feet. We have a fort, situated at the head of the falls. The ground on the south side rises very gradually.

At Fort Pitt the river Ohio looses its name, branching into the Mo­nongahela and Allegany.

The Monongahela is four hundred yards wide at its mouth. From thence is twelve or fifteen miles to the mouth of Yohogany, where it is three hundred yards wide. Thence to Red stone by water is 50 miles, by land thirty. Then to the mouth of Cheat river, by water forty miles, by land twenty eight, the width continuing at three hun­dred yards, and the navigation good for boats. Thence the width is about two hundred yards to the western fork, fifty miles higher, and the navigation frequently interrupted by rapids; which, however, with a swell of two or three feet, become very passable for boats. It then admits light boats, except in dry seasons, sixty five miles further, in the head of Tygart's valley, presenting only some small rapids and falls of one or two feet perpendicular, and lessening in its width to twenty yards. The Western fork is navigable in the winter ten or fifteen miles towards the northern of the Little Kanhaway, and will admit a good waggon road to it. The Yohogany is the principal branch of this river. It passes through the Laurel mountain, about thirty [Page 160] miles from its mouth; is, so far, from three hundred to one▪ [...] and fifty yards wide, and the navigation much obstructed in dry [...] ­ther by rapids and shoals. In its passage through the mounta [...] [...] makes very great falls, admitting no navigation for ten miles, [...] Turkey foot. Thence to the Great Crossing, about twenty miles, [...] again navigable, except in dry seasons, and at this place is two hun­dred yards wide. The sources of this river are divided from [...] the Patomak by the Allegany mountain. From the falls, where [...] ­tersects the Laurel mountain, to Fort Cumberland, the head [...] navigation on the Patomak, is forty miles of very mountainous [...] Will's creek, at the mouth of which was Fort Cumberland, is [...] or forty yards wide, but affords no navigation as yet. Ch [...]t [...] another considerable branch of the Monongahela, is two [...] yards wide at its mouth, and one hundred yards at the Dunka [...] [...] ­tlement, fifty miles higher. It is navigable for boats, except [...] seasons. The boundary between Virginia and Pennsylvania [...] about three or four miles above its mouth.

The Allegany river, affords navigation at all seasons for light bat­teaux to Venango, at the mouth of French creek, where [...] hundred yards wide; and it is practised even to Le B [...]uf, from [...] there is a portage of fifteen miles and a half to Presque Isle on [...] Erie.

The country watered by the Mississippi and its eastern bra [...] [...] constitutes five-eighths of the United States; two of which five [...] are occupied by the Ohio and its waters: the residuary streams, [...] run into the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic, and the St. Lawrence water the remaining three-eights.

Before we quit the subject of the western waters, we will [...] view of their principal connections with the Atlantic. Th [...]se [...] sour, the Hudson's river, the Patomak, St. Lawrence and [...] Down the last will pass all the heavy commodities. But the [...] ­gation through the Gulf of Mexico is so dangerous, and that [...] Missisippi so difficult and tedious, that it is thought probable that [...] ­ropean merchandize will not be conveyed through that channel. [...] is most likely that flour, timber, and other heavy articles [...] be floated on rafts, which will themselves be an article for [...] as well as their loading, the navigators returning by [...] as at present. There will therefore be a competition [...] the Hudson, the Patomak and the St. Lawrence rivers, for [...] residue of the commerce of all the country westward of Lake [...] on the waters of the lakes of the Ohio, and upper parts of Missi­sippi. To go to New York, that part of the trade which [...] [...] the lakes or their waters, must first be brought into Lake Erie. [...] be­tween Lake Superior and its waters, and Huron, are the rapids [...] Marie, which will permit boats to pass, but not larger vessels. [...] Huron and Michigan afford communication with Lake Erie by [...] of eight feet draught. That part of the trade which comes [...] the waters of the Missisippi, must pass from them through [...] portage into the waters of the lakes. The portage from the [...] river into a water of Michigan, is of one mile only. From the [...] Miami, Muskingum, or Allegany, are portages into the waters of [...] Erie, of from one to fifteen miles. When the commodities are [...] into and have passed through Lake Erie, there is between that [...] Ontario an interruption by the falls of Niagara, where the [...] [Page 161] is of eight miles; and between Ontario and the Hudson's river are portages of the falls of Onondago, a little above Oswego, of a quarter of a mile; from Wood creek to the Mohawks river two miles; at the little falls of the Mohawks river half a mile, and from Schenectady to Alb [...]ny sixteen miles. Besides the increase of expense occasioned by frequent change of carriage, there is an increased risk of pillage produced by committing merchandize to a greater number of hands [...]ssively. The Patomak offers itself under the following circum­ [...]nce. For the trade of the lakes and their waters westward of Lake [...] when it shall have entered that lake, must coast along its south­ern shore, on account of the number and excellence of its harbours; [...] northern, though shortest, having few harbours, and these unsafe. [...]ing reached Cayahoga, to proceed on to New York, it will have [...] hundred and twenty-five miles and five portages; whereas it is but [...] hundred and twenty five miles to Alexandria, its emporium on the Patomak, if it turns into the Cayahoga, and passes through that, Bi [...]eaver, Ohio, Yohoganey, (or Monongalia and Cheat) and Pato­mak, and there are but two portages; the first of which, between Cay­ahoga and Beaver, may be removed by uniting the sources of these [...], which are lakes in the neighbourhood of each other, and in a champaign country; the other, from the waters of Ohio to Patomak, will be from fifteen to forty miles, according to the trouble which [...] be taken to approach the two navigations. For the trade of the [...] or that which shall come into it from its own waters or the Missisippi, it is nearer through the Patomak to Alexandria than to New York, by five hundred and eighty miles, and it is interrupted by one portage only. There is another circumstance of difference too. The [...]kes themselves never freeze, but the communications between [...] freeze, and the Hudson's river is itself shut up by the ice three [...] in the year; whereas the channel to the Chesapeek leads [...] into a warmer climate. The southern parts of it very rarely [...] at all, and whenever the northern do, it is so near the sources of the rivers, that the frequent floods, to which they are there liable, [...] up the ice immediately, so that vessels may pass through the whole winter, subject only to accidental and short delays. Add to all [...], that in case of a war with our neighbours of Canada, or the In­dians, the rout to New-York becomes a frontier through almost its whole length, and all commerce through it ceases from that moment. But the channel to New-York is already known to practice; where­as, the [...]per waters of the Ohio and the Patomak, and the great falls of the latter, are yet to be cleared of their fixed obstructions.

The rout by St. Lawrence is well known to be attended with many advantages, and with some disadvantages: But there is a fifth rout, which the enlightened and enterprizing Pennsylvanians contemplate▪ which, if effected, will be the easiest, cheapest and surest passage from the lakes, and Ohio river, by means of the Susquehanna, and a [...] from thence to Philadelphia. The latter part of this plan, viz. the [...] between Susquehannah and the Schuylkill rivers, is now actual­ly [...] execution. Should they accomplish their whole scheme, [...] they appear confident of success, Philadelphia, in all probability [...] become, in some future period, the largest city that has ever yet [...].

Particular descriptions of the other rivers in the United States, are reserved to be given in the geographical account of those states, through [Page 162] which they respectively flow. One general observation respective [...] rivers will, however, be naturally introduced here, and that i [...] [...] the entrance into almost all the rivers, inlets and bays, from [...] Hampshire to Georgia, are from southeast to northwest.

BAYS.] The coast of the United Sates is indented with [...] bays, some of which are equal in size to any in the known [...]. Beginning at the northeasterly part of the continent, and pro [...] southwesterly, you first find the bay or gulf of St. Lawrenc▪ [...] receives the waters of the river of the same name. Next are [...] to and Chebukto Bays, in Nova-Scotia, the latter distinguished [...] loss of a French fleet in a former war between France and G. Britain▪ [...] Bay of Fundy, between Nova-Scotia and New-Brunswick, is [...] for its tides, which rise to the height of fifty or sixty feet, and flow so [...] ­ly as to overtake animals which feed upon the shore. Passa [...] Penobscot, Broad and Casco Bays, lie along the coast of the [...] Maine. Massachusetts Bay spreads eastward of Boston, and is compre­hended between Cape Ann on the north, and Cape Cod on the [...]. The points of Boston harbour are Nahant and Alderton points. [...] by Narraganset and other bays in the state of Rhode Island, you [...] Long Island found, between Montauk point and and the main. [...] Sound, as it is called, is a kind of inland sea, from three to twenty [...] miles broad, and about one hundred and forty miles long, [...] the whole length of the island, and dividing it from Connecticut. It communicates with the ocean at both ends of Long Island, and [...] fords a very safe and convenient inland navigation.

The celebrated strait, called Hell-Gate, is near the west end of [...] sound, about eight miles eastward of New York city, and is [...] able for its whirlpools, which make a tremendous roaring at [...] times of tide. These whirlpools are occasioned by the [...] and crookedness of the pass, and a bed of rocks which [...] quite across it; and not by the meeting of the tides from east to [...] as has been conjectured, because they meet at Frogs' point, several [...] above. A skilful pilot may with safety, conduct a ship of any [...] ­den through this strait with the tide, or, at still water, with a [...] wind ^*.

[Page 163] Delaware Bay is sixty miles long. from the Cape to the entrance of the river Delaware at Bombay hook; and so wide in some parts, as that a ship, in the middle of it, cannot be seen from the land. It opens into the Atlantic northwest and southeast, between Cape Hen­ [...]pen on the right, and Cape May on the left. These Capes are eigh­teen or twenty miles apart.

The Chesapeek is one of the largest bays in the known world. Its entrance is nearly E. N. E. and S. S. W. between Cape Charles, lat. [...]7° 12, and Cape Henry, lat. 37°. in Virginia, twelve miles wide, and it extends two hundred and seventy miles to the northward, dividing Virginia and Maryland. It is from seven to eighteen miles broad, and generally as much as nine fathoms deep; affording many commodious [...]bours, and a safe and easy navigation. It receives the waters of the Susquehannah, Patomak, Rappahannok, York and James rivers, which are all large and navigable.

FACE OF THE COUNTRY.} The tract of country belonging to the United States, is happily variegated with plains and moun­tains, hills and vallies. Some parts are rocky, particularly New Eng­land, the north parts of New York, and New Jersey, and a broad space, including the several ridges of the long range of mountains which run southwestward through Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, and part of Georgia, dividing the waters which flow into the Atlant­ic, from those which fall into the Missisippi. In the parts east of the Allegany mountains, in the southern states, the country for several hundred miles in length, and sixty or seventy, and sometimes more, in breadth, is level and entirely free from stone. It has been a question agitated by the curious, whether the extensive tract of low, flat coun­try, which fronts the several states south of New York, and extends back to the hills, has remained in its present form and situation ever since the flood: or whether it has been made by the particles of earth which have been washed down from the adjacent mountains, and by the accumulation of soil from the decay of vegetable substances; or by earth washed out of the bay of Mexico by the Gulf Stream, and lodged on the coast: or by the recess of the ocean, occasioned by a charge in some other parts of the earth. Several phenomena deserve consideration in forming an opinion on this question.

1. It is a fact, well known to every person of observation who has lived in, or travelled through the southern states, that marine shells and other substances which are peculiar to the sea shore, are almost invariably found by digging eighteen or twenty feet below the surface of the earth. A gentleman of veracity told me, that in sinking a well many miles from the sea, he found, at the depth of twenty feet, every appearance of a salt marsh, that is, marsh grass, marsh mud, and brack­ish water. In all this flat country, until you come to the hilly land, wherever you dig a well, you find the water, at a certain depth, fresh and tolerable good; but if you exceed that depth two or three feet, you [Page 164] come to a saltish or brackish water that is scarcely drinkable, and [...] earth dug up, resembles, in appearance and smell, that which is dug [...] on the edges of the salt marshes.

2. On and near the margin of the rivers are frequently found [...] hills, which appear to have been drifted into ridges by the force of water. At the bottom of some of the banks in the rivers, fifteen [...] twenty feet below the surface of the earth, are washed out from [...] solid ground, logs, branches and leaves of trees; and the whole [...] from bottom to top, appears streaked with [...] of logs, leaves [...] sand. These appearances are seen far up the rivers, from eighty to [...] hundred miles from the sea, where, when the rivers are low, the [...] are from fifteen to twenty feet high. As you proceed down the [...] ­ers toward the sea, the banks decrease in height, but still are [...] of layers of sand, leaves and logs, some of which are entirely [...] and appear to have been suddenly covered to a considerable depth.

3. It has been observed that the rivers in the southern states, [...] ­quently vary their channels; that the swamps and low grounds [...] constantly filling up, and that the land, in many places, annually [...] fringes upon the ocean. It is an authenticated fact, that no longer [...] go than 1771, at Cape Lookout, on the coast of North Carolina, [...] about latitude 34° 50′, there was an excellent harbour, capa [...] enough to receive an hundred sail of shipping at a time, in a good depth of water. It is now entirely filled up, and is solid ground. Instance of this kind are frequent along the coast.

It is observable, likewise, that there is a gradual descent of [...] eight hundred feet, by measurement, from the foot of the mountains [...] the sea board. This descent continues, as is demonstrated by so [...] ­ings, far into the sea.

4. It is worthy of observation, that the soil on the banks of the [...] ­ers is proportionably coarse or fine according to its distance from the mountains. When you first leave the mountains, and for a considera­ble distance, it is observable, that the soil is coarse, with a large mixt [...] of sand and shining heavy particles. As you proceed toward the [...] the soil is less coarse, and so on, in proportion as you advance, the [...] is finer and finer, until, finally, is deposited a soil so fine, that it [...] ­solidates into perfect clay; but a clay of a peculiar quality, for a gr [...] part of it has intermixed with it reddish streaks and veins, like a [...] ­cies of ochre, brought probably from the red-lands which lie up towards the mountains. This clay, when dug up and exposed to the weather, will dissolve into a fine mould, without the least mixture of sand or any gritty substance whatever. Now we know that running waters, when turbid, will deposit, first, the coarsest and heaviest particles, [...] ­diately, those of the several intermediate degrees of fineness, and ulti­mately, those which are the most light and subtle; and such in fact is the general quality of the soil on the banks of the southern rivers.

5. It is a well known fact, that on the banks of Savannah river, about ninety miles from the sea in a direct line, and one hundred and fifty or two hundred, as the river runs, there is a very remarkable col­lection of oyster shells of an uncommon size. They run in a northeast and southwest direction, nearly parallel to the sea coast, in [...] distinct ridges, which together occupy a space of seven miles in breadth. The ridges commence at Savannah river, and have been traced [...] south as the northern branches of the Alatamaha river. They [...] found in such quantities, as that the indigo planters carry them away [Page 165] in large boat loads, for the purpose of making lime water, to be used in the manufacture of indigo. There are thousands and thousands of tons still remaining. ^* The question is, how came they here? It can­not be supposed that they were carried by land. Neither is it proba­ble that they were conveyed in canoes, or boats, to such a distance from the place where oysters are now found. The uncivilized natives, agreeably to their roving manner of living, would rather have remov­ed to the sea shore, than have been at such immense labour in procur­ing oysters. Besides, the difficulties of conveying them would have been insurmountable. They would not only have had a strong current in the river against them, an obstacle which would not have been easily overcome by the Indians, who have ever had a great aversion to labour, but could they have surmounted this difficulty, oysters, conveyed such a distance, either by land or water, in so warm a climate, would have spoiled on the passage, and have become useless. The circumstance of these shells being found in such quantities, at so great a distance from the sea, can be rationally accounted for in no other way, than by sup­posing that the sea shore was formerly near this bed of shells, and that the ocean has since, by the operation of certain causes not yet fully investigated, receded. These phenomena, it is presumed, will autho­rize this conclusion, That a great part of the flat country which spreads easterly of the Allegany mountains, had, in some past period, a super­incumbent sea; or rather, that the constant accretion of soil from the various causes before hinted at, has forced it to retire.

MOUNTAINS.] The tract of country east of Hudson's river, com­prehending part of the State of New-York, the four New-England States, and Vermont, is rough, hilly, and in some parts mountainous. These mountains will be more particularly described under New-Eng­land. In all parts of the world, and particularly on this western conti­nent, it is observable, that as you depart from the ocean, or from a river, the land gradually rises; and the height of land, in common, is about e­qually distant from the water on either side. The Andes, in South-A­merica, form the height of land between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The highlands between the District of Maine and the Province of Lower Canada, divide the rivers which fall into the St. Lawrence, north, and into the Atlantic, south. The Green Mountains, in Vermont, divide [...]he waters which flow easterly into Connecticut river, from those [Page 166] which fall westerly into Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Hud­son's River.

Between the Atlantic, the Missisippi, and the Lakes, runs [...] range of mountains, made up of a great number of ridges. The [...] mountains extend northeasterly and southwesterly, nearly [...] the sea coast, about nine hundred miles in length, and from [...] one hundred and fifty, and two hundred miles in breadth. Mr. [...] observes, with respect to that part of these mountains which he [...] ­led over, viz. in the back parts of Pennsylvania, that scarcely [...] [...] in ten is capable of culture. This, however, is not the case in all [...] of this range. Numerous tracts [...]f fine arable and grazing land [...] ­vene between the ridges. The different ridges which compose [...] immense range of mountains, have different names in different [...].

As you advance from the Atlantic, the first ridge in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, is the Blue Ridge or South [...] which is from one hundred and thirty, to two hundred miles from the sea. Between this and the North Mountain, spreads a large [...] ­vale; next lies the Allegany ridge; next beyond this is the [...] Ridge, called the Laurel Mountains, in a spur of which, about [...] 36°, is a spring of water, fifty feet deep, very cold, and it is [...] blue as indigo. From these several ridges, proceed innumerable [...] ­less branches or spurs. The Kittatinny mountains run through [...] northern parts of New-Jersey and Pennsylvania. All these [...] except the Allegany, are separated by rivers, which appear to [...] forced their passages through solid rocks.

The principal ridge is the Allegany, which has been descri [...] called the back bone of the United States. The general name for [...] mountains, taken collectively, seems not yet to have been determined▪ Mr. Evans calls them the Endless Mountains: Others have called [...] the Appalachian mountains, from a tribe of Indians, who live [...] river which proceeds from this mountain, called the Appalachian. But the most common, name i [...] the Allegany Mountains, so called, either from the principal ridge of the range, or from their running [...] parallel to the Allegany or Ohio river; which, from its head [...] till it empties into the Missisippi, is known and called by the [...] Allegany river, by the Seneca and other tribes of the Six Nations, who [...] inhabited it. These mountains are not confusedly scattered and [...] ­en, rising here and there into high peaks, overtopping each other▪ [...] stretch along in uniform ridges, scarcely half a mile high. They [...] as you proceed south, and some of them terminate in high perpendicu­lar bluffs. Others gradually subside into a level country, giving rise [...] the rivers which run southerly into the Gulf of Mexico.

They afford many curious phenomena, from which naturalists have deduced many theories of the earth. Some of them have been [...] ­sical enough▪ Mr. Evans supposes that the most obvious of the [...] ­ries which have been formed of the earth is, that it was originally [...] out of the ruins of another. "Bones and shells which escaped the [...] of softer animal substances, we find mixed with the old materials, and elegantly preserved in the loose stones and rocky bases of the highest of these hills." With deference, however, to Mr. Evans's opinion, these appearances have been much more rationally accounted for by supposing the reality of the flood, of which Moses has given us [...] count. Mr. Evans thinks this too great a miracle to obtain [...]. But whether is it a greater miracle for the Creator to alter a globe of [Page 167] earth by a deluge, when made, or to create one new from the ruin [...] of another? The former certainly is not less credible than the latter.—"These mountains," says our author, "existed in their present elevated height before the deluge, but not so bare of soil as now." How Mr. Evans came to be so circumstantially acquainted with these pretended facts, is difficult to determine, unless we suppose him to have been an Antediluvian, and to have surveyed them accurately before the convul­sions of the deluge; and until we can be fully assured of this, we must be excused in not assenting to his opinion, and in adhering to the old philosophy of Moses and his advocates. We have every reason to be­lieve that the primitive state of the earth was totally metamorphosed by the first convulsion of nature, at the time of the deluge; that the fountains of the great deep were indeed broken up, and that the various strata of the earth were dissevered, and thrown into every possible degree of confusion and disorder. Hence those vast piles of mountains which lift their craggy cliffs to the clouds, were probably thrown together from the floating ruins of the earth: And this conjecture is remarka­bly confirmed by the vast number of fossils and other marine exuvioe which are found imbeded on the tops of mountains, in the interior parts of continents remote from the sea, in all parts of the world hither­to explored. The various circumstances attending these marine bodies, leave us to conclude, that they were actually generated, lived, and died in the very beds wherein they were found, and therefore these beds must have originally been at the bottom of the ocean, though now in many instances elevated several miles above its surface. Hence it ap­pears that mountains and continents were not primary productions of nature, but of a very distant period of time from the creation of the world; a time long enough for the strata to have acquired their great­est degree of cohesion and hardness; and for the testaccous matter of marine shells to become changed to a stony substance; for in the fis­sures of the lime-stone and other strata, fragments of the same shell have been frequently found adhering to each side of the cleft, in the very state in which they were originally broken; so that if the several parts were brought together▪ they would apparently tally with each other exactly. A very considerable time therefore must have elapsed be­tween the chaotic state of the earth and the deluge, which agrees with the account of Moses, who makes it a little upwards of sixteen hun­dred years. These observations are intended to shew, in one instance out of many others, the agreement between revelation and reason, between the account which Moses gives us of the creation and deluge, and the present appearances of nature. Those who wish to have this agree­ment more fully and satisfactorily stated, are referred to a very learn­ed and ingenious "Inquiry into the original state and formation of the earth," by John Whitchurst, F. R. S. to whom I acknowledge myself indebted for some of the foregoing observations.

SOIL AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS.} In the United States are to be found every species of soil that the earth af­fords. In one part of them or another, they produce all the various kinds of fruits, grain▪ pulse and hortuline plants and roots, which are found in Europe, and have been thence transplanted to America. Besides these, a great variety of native, vegetable productions.

The natural history of the American States, particularly of New­England, is yet in its infancy. Several ingenious foreigners, skilled in Botany, have visited the southern, and some of the middle States, [Page 168] and Canada; and these States have also had ingenious [...] their own, who have made considerable progress in describing the [...] ­tions of those parts of America which they have visited; [...] England seems not to have engaged the attention, either of [...] or American Botanists. There was never an attempt to descri [...] [...] ­tanically, the vegetable productions of the eastern states, till [...] Doct. Cutler, of Ipswich, turned his attention to the subject. [...] result of his first enquiries was published in the first volume [...] "Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Science." [...] that period, the Doctor has paid very particular attention to [...] favourite study;s and the public may shortly expect to be [...] and improved by his botanical descriptions and discoveries. ^* [...] liberal and generous communications, I am principally indeb [...] the following account of the vegetable productions of the easter [...] middle States.

N. B. The following catalogues are all incomplete, and [...] only to give general ideas. They contain, however, more [...] formation concerning the Natural History of New-England, than [...] yet been published.

Grain, cultivated in the Eastern and Middle States.} Indian Corn (Zea mays) a native [...] of N. America. The varieties of this [...] occasioned by difference in soil, cultiva­tion and climate, are almost endless. ^† Winter and summer rye ( [...] ­cale cereale, hybernum et vernum,) the only species cultivated by our farmers. The winter rye succeeds best in ground newly [...], but summer rye is frequently sown in old towns, where the land [...] been long under cultivation. The winter and summer rye are the same species, forming two varieties; but the winter and summer wh [...] are two distinct species. Several species of barely are cultivated, the most common is the six ranked (Hordeum hexastichon,) and the [...] ranked (Hordeum distichon.) The wheat principally cultivated [...] the winter and summer (Triticum hybernum et aestivum.)—Oats (A [...] ­na sativa.)—Buck-wheat (Polygonum fagopi [...]um.)

In the southern States, as far north as Virginia, where the lands are suitable, besides the grain already mentioned, they cultivate rice.—This grain was brought into Carolina first by Sir Nathaniel Johnson, in 1688; and afterwards more and of a different kind, probably a va­riety, was, imported by a ship from Madagascar▪ in 1696; till which [Page 169] time it was not much cultivated. It succeeds well also on the Ohio river, where it is planted both on the high and low grounds, and in the same fields with Indian corn and other grain. A gentleman who had planted it several years in his garden, informed Dr. Cutler that it yielded at the rate of 80 bushels an acre. At Marietta, it has answer­ed the most sanguine expectations of the inhabitants, producing equal to any other grain, without being at any time overflowed with water. The Doctor himself saw it growing in a very flourishing state, on high land, but it had not, at the season he saw it, began to bloom. It was said not to be of the same species of the Carolina rice. It is prob­ably the wild rice, which I have been informed grows in plenty, in some of the interior parts of North America, and is the most valuable of all the spontaneous productions of the country. In Pennsylvania grows a sort of grain called, by the Germans, Spelts, which resembles wheat; and is a very valuable grain.

Cultivated Grasses in the Eastern and Middle States.} All the grasses, cultivated in the middle and New-England States, are found growing indigenous. It is not improbable, however, that some of them may be naturalized exotics. The following are the principal grasses sown in our cultivated ground, or in any way propa­gated for feed and hay.

Herd's Grass or Fox Tail, (Alopecurus pratensis,) this is reckoned the best grass we have, is a native, and supposed to be peculiar to this country. Blue Grass (Alopecurus geniculatus.)—Many species of Bent. (Agrostis,) Particularly the Rhode Island Bent (Agrostis inter­rupta?) The small and great English grass (Poa trivialis et pratensis.)—Wire grass (Poa compressa.)—Fowl Meadow grass (Poa aviaria, spi­culis subb [...]floris.) ^* Red and white Clover (Trifolium pratense et re­pens.)

The grasses of Virginia, according to Mr. Jefferson, are Lucerne, St. Foin, Burnet, Timothy, Ray and Orchard grass, red, white and yellow Clover; Greenswerd, Blue grass and Crab grass. South of Virginia very little attention is paid to the cultivation of grasses. The winters are so mild, that the cattle find a tolerable supply of food in the woods.

Native Grasses in New-England.} Besides the cultivated grasses, the States of New-England abound with a great va­riety which are found growing in their native soils and situations, many of which have not been described by any botanical writers. The small experiments which have been made, sufficiently evince that several of them make excellent hay. They might be greatly improv­ed by cultivation, and are highly worthy the attention of our farmers. Those which are found most common are the following, viz.

The vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum.)—Timothy, or bulbus cat's tail grass (Phlcum pratense.)—Several species of Panic grass (Panicum)—Several species of bent (Agrostis)—Hair grass (Aira aqua­tica)—Numerous species of Poa▪—Quaking grass, (Briza) several spe­cies—Cock's foot grass (Dactylis glomerata)—Millet (Milium effusum)—Fescue grass (Festuco) many species—Oat grass (Avena spicata)—Reed grass (Arundo) several species—Brome grass (Bromus squarrosus)—Lime grass (Elymus hystrix)—Barley grass (Hordeum pratense)—Dog's or couch grass (Triticum repens)—Many species of rush grass [Page 170] (Juncus)—Numerous species of Carex, in fresh and salt, marshy [...] Several species of Beard grass (Andropogon)—Soft grass, ( [...] lanatus et odoratus)—Besides these, there are many valuable [...] which, at present, are non-descripts.

Wild Fruits in New-England.] Black Currant (Ribes [...] Gooseberry (Ribes glossularia)—Prickly Gooseberry (Ribes [...] bati)—Two species of Grapes—the Black grape (Vitis [...] and Fox grape (Vitis vulpina.) Of these two species we [...] many varieties, differing only in size, colour and taste. An [...] ­lent wine, and in large quantities, has lately been made by [...] French people, at their new settlement on the Ohio river, from [...] native grapes, without any kind of cultivation. They collected [...] grapes promiscuously from all the varieties growing in that [...] By separating them, wines of different, and no doubt some of [...] of a much better quality, might have been made. The native [...] propagated with great ease; its growth is luxuriant, overspread [...] highest trees in the forests, and by proper attention, would aff [...] ample supply of wines, in the northern as well as southern States. [...] principal difficulty seems to be the want of a proper knowledge of [...] process in making wine, and preparing it for use.—Barberry [...] (Berberis vulgaris)—Whortleberry (Vaccinium ligustrinum)— [...] ­berry (Vaccinium corymbosum)—White Whortleberry (Vac [...] albu [...])—Indian Gooseberry (Vaccinium frondosum)—Long [...] Whortleberry (Vaccinium stamineum)—Craneberry (Vaccinium [...] couo [...])—Yellow Plumb (Prunus americana)—Beach Plumb ( [...] marati [...]a▪—Large black cherry (Prunus nigra)—Purple [...] (Prunus virginiana)—Wild red Cherry (Prunus rubra)— [...] [...] Choak Cherry (Prunus canadensis)—Mountain Cherry ( [...] [...]ontana).—Service tree (Mespilus canadensis)—Bramble [...] (Rubus occidentalis)—Sawteat Blackberry or Bumblekites ( [...] ­fruticosus)—Briar Blackberry (Rubus moluccanus)—Dewberry (Rubus hispidus)—Common Raspberry (Rubus idaeus)—Smo [...] stalked Raspberry (Rubus canadensis)—Superb Raspberry ( [...] ­odoratus)—Strawberry (Fragaria vesca.) The native strawberry is much improved by cultivation, and produces a larger and better flavoured fruit, than the exotic.—Mulberry (Morus nigra.)

For information on this article, respecting the Southern States, the reader may consult what Catesby, Clayton, Jefferson and Bartra [...] [...] written upon it.

Nut Fruit.] White Oak (Quercus alba)—Red Oak (Quercus [...] ­bra) and several other species with smaller fruit.—Black Walnut ( [...] ­glans nigra)—White Walnut, Butternut, or Oilnut (Juglans catha [...]—White, or round nut Hiccory (Juglans alba)—Shag-bark Hico [...] (Juglans cineria?) ^*—Chesnut (Fagus castanca)—Chinquipin, or dwa [...] Chesnut (Fagus pumila)—Beech nut (Fagus sylvatica.)—Ha [...]c [...] (Corylus avallana)—Filbert (Corylus cornuta.)

We may here mention the Paccan or Illinois nut (Juglans alba, [...] ­ [...]lis lanceolatis, acuminatis, serratis, tomentosis, fructu minore, [...] compresso, vix insculpto, dulci, putamine, tenerrimo. Jefferson.) The nut is about the size of a large long acorn, and of an oval form, the shell▪ is easily cracked, and the kernel shaped like that of a [...]. The trees which bear this fruit grow, naturally, on the Missisippi [...] its branches, south of forty degrees north latitude. They grow well when planted in the southern Atlantic States.

[Page 171] Medicinal Plants in New England.} Among the native and uncultivated plants of New England, the following have been em­ployed for medicinal purposes. Water Horehound (Lycopus virgin­ica)—Blue Flag (Iris virginica)—Skunk Cabbage (Arum Americanum▪ Catesh▪ and Dracontium foetidum▪ Linn.)—Partridge-berry (Mitchella rep [...]ns)—Great, and Marsh Plantain (Plantago major et maritima)—Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginica)—Hounds tongue (Cynog [...]o [...]um officinale)—Comfrey (Symphytum officin.)—Bear's ear Sanicle (Co [...] ­ [...]sa g [...]elini)—Appleperu (Datura strammonium)—Bittersweet (Sola­num dulca-mare)—Tivertwig, or American Maxerion (Celastrus scan­dens)—Elm ^* (Ulmus americana)—Great Laserwort, and Wild Angel­ica (Laserpitium trilobum, et latifolium)—Angelica, or American [...]erwort (Angelica lucida)—Water Elder (Virburnum opulus)—Elder (Sambucus nigra)—Chickweed (Alfina [...]pedia)—Pettimorrel▪ or Life of man (Aralia racemosa)—Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis?—Marsh Rosemary (Statice limonium)—Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia)—Solomon's Seal (Convallaria stellata?)—Adder's tongue (Convalla­ria bi [...]olia)—Unicorn (Aletrisfarinosa)—Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus)—Several species of Dock (Rumex)—Bistort (Polygonum bistorta)—Spice wood, or Feverbush (Laurus benzoin)—Sassatras (Laurus saffa­ [...]ras)—Consumption root (Pyrola rotundifolia)—Rheumatism weed (Pyrola minor)—Mouse ear (Cerastium viseosum)—Gargit, or Skok [...] (Phytolacca decandria)—Wild Hyssop (Lythrum hysopis)—Agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria)—Common Avens, or Her [...] Bennet (Geum Virg.)—Water Avens, or Throat root (Geum rivale)—Blood root, or Puccoon (Sanguinario canadensis)—Celandine (Chelidonium majus)—Yellow Water Lily (Nymphoea lutea)—Pond Lily (Nymphoea alba)—Golden thread, or Mouth root (Nigella?)—Liverwort (Anemone hepatica)—Crowsfoot (Ranunculus Pennsylv.)—Germander (Teucrum Virg.)—Catmint, or Catnip (Nepeta cataria)—Head Betony (Betonica officinalis)—Horsemint, Spearmint, Watermint and Penniroyal (Me [...] ­th [...] spicata, viridis, aquatica, et pulegium)—Ground [...]vy, or Gill go over the ground (Glecoma hederacea)—Hedgene [...]le (Stachys sylvatica)—Horehound (Marruhium vulgare)—Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca)—Wild Marjorum (Origanum vulgare)—Wild Lavender (Trichostema?) Wood Betony (Pidicularis canadensis)—Shephard's p [...]se or▪ pouch (Th [...]apspi burs. pastoris)—Water Cresses (Sisymbrium nasturtium)—Cranesbill (Geranium macrorhizum)—Marsh Mallow (Althoea officin.)—Mallow (Malva rotundifolia)—Succory (Crepis barba [...]a)—Burdock (Arctium lappa)—Devil's bit (Serratula amara) The root resembles the European Devils bit (Scabivla succisa) from which circumstance the English name has probably been applied to this plant.—Tanley (Tan­ [...]cetum vulgare)—Wormwood (Artemi [...]ia absinthiani)—Life everlasting (Gnaphalium odoratissimum?)—Colts foot (Tussilago farsara)—Golden­rod (Solidago canad.)—Elecampane (Inula helenium)—Mayweed (An­themis cotula)—Yarrow (Achillea millefolia)—American Pride (Lobe­lia cardinalis) Three other species of Lobelia (Lobelia dortmanna, kal [...]ii, et [...]iphilitica)—Dragon root (Arum Virg.)—Stinging Nettle (Urticaurens)—White Walnut, Butter nut, or Oilnut (Juglans cathartica)—Swamp Willow (Salix cinerea?)—Sweet Gale (Myrica gale)—White Hellebore or Pokeroot (Veratrum album)—Moonwort (Osmundalunaria)—Female Fern (Pteris caudata)—Hearts tongue (Alplenium scolopend [...]— [Page 172] um—Splcenwort (Asplenium salicifolium)—Black Maidenhair (A [...] ­um ad [...]antum.) To the above we may add, Arsmart (Poly [...] Sagitatum. Linn.)

Among a great variety of other medicinal plants in the south [...] and middle States are Pink root ( [...]) an excellent [...] ­fuge—Senna (Cassia ligustrina)—Clivers or Goose grass (Galium [...] ­um)—Palma Christi (Ricinus) from which the Castor oil is [...] ­ed—Several species of Mallow—Indian Physic (Spiraea trif [...] Euphorbia Ipecacuanhae—Pleurisy root (Asclepias decumbens)—V [...] ­ia Snake root (Aristolochia serpentaria)—Black snake root (A [...] ­cemola)—Seneca rattle snake root (Polygala Senega)—Valerian ( [...] ­ria [...]a locusta radiata)—Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium)—Angelica (An­gelica fylvestris)—Cassava (Jatropha urens.)

Flowering Trees and Shrubs in the United States.} Globe flower (Cephalanthus ocei [...] ­lis)—Pigeonberry (Cissus sicyoide [...]) [...] ­ginian Dogwood (Cornus florida)—Conel (Cornus canadens [...])— [...] flowered Honeysuckle (Azalea nudiflora)—White American [...] suckle (Azalea viscosa)—American Tea (Ceanothus americanus)— [...] ­ry Honeysuckle (Lonicera diervilla)—Virginia scarlet Honey [...] (Lonicera virginiana)—Dwarf Cherry Honeysuckle (Lonicera [...] ­densis)—Evergreen spindle Tree (Euonymus sempervirens)—Vir [...] Itea (Itea virginica) Stag's horn Sumach (Rhus typhinum)— [...] Haw (Viburnum prunifolium)—Blackberried Elder (Sambucus [...])—Redberried Elder (Sambucus canadensis)—Scarlet flowered [...] Chestnut (AEsculus pavia)—Judas Tree (Cercis canadensis)— [...] Laurel (Kalmia latifolia)—Dwarf Laurel (Kalmia angustifolia)— [...] leaved Marsh Cistus (Ledum Thymifolium)—American Senna ( [...] dora canadensis)—Rose bay Tree (Rhododendrum maximum)— [...] pepper bush (Andromeda arborea)—Red bud Andromeda (Androme­da racemosa)—Bog evergreen (Andromeda calyculata)— [...] Redbud (Andromeda nitida)—Carolina Iron wood Tree (Andro [...] plumata)—Carolinian Syrianga (Philadelphus inodorus)—Sorbus [...] (Sorbus aucuparia)—Mountain Ash (Sorbus americana) Service [...] (Mespilus canadensis)—Medlar Tree (Mespilus nivea)—Sweet [...] Crab Apple tree (Pyrus coronaria)—Meadow sweet (Spiraea salic [...] ­lia)—Queen of the Meadows (Spiraea tomentosa)—Canadian Spir [...] (Spiraea hypericifolia)—Wild Rose (Rosa carolina)—Pennsylvania Swamp Rose (Rosa palustris)—Superb Raspberry (Rubus odorat [...] Carolian Fothergilla (Fothergilla gardeni)—Tulip Tree (Liriode [...] [...] tulipifera)—Evergreen Tulip Tree (Magnolia grandiflora)— [...] Trumpet flower (Bignonia radicans)—Virginian Stewartia (Stewa [...] malacodendron)—Franklin Tree (Franklinia alatamaha)—Locust [...] (Robinia pseud acacia)—Roseflowered Locust Tree (Robinia rose [...] Swamp Willow (Salix cineria?)—Redflowered Maple (Acer [...].

N. B. The above catalogue is far from being complete, but [...] serve to give a tolerable idea of this class of shrubs, in the United States.

Forest Trees.] Were we possessed of accurate materials for the [...] ­pose, it would far exceed the limits a work embracing such a [...] of subjects, to give a complete catalogue of our trees. From the [...] going catalogues the reader must necessarily conclude that they [...] very numerous. And it ought to be observed that almost all of [...] for some purpose o [...] other, have been used as timber. Some of [...] most useful [...] not be omitted, and are [...] [Page 173] following—ELM (Ulmus americana) Of this tree there is but one spe­cies ^* of which there are two varieties, the white and the red. WILD CHEERY; many species, highly valued for cabinet work. LOCUST (Ro­binia pseudo-acacia) of quick growth, good for fuel, and excellent for posts to set in the ground, and trunnels for ships. EIRCH; several species, 1. White (Betula alba) 2. Black (Betula nigra) 3. Red or yellow (Betula lenta)—OAK; several species 1. Black (Quercus niger) 2. Red (Quercus rubra) three varieties. 3. White (Quercus alba) 4. Shrub or ground oak (Quercus pumila) 5. Chesnut oak (Quercus prinus) 6. Live oak (Quercus sempervirens—Quercus Virginiana. Millar) 7. Black jack oak (Quercus aquatica, Clayton) The two last are peculiar to the southern States. CHESNUT (Fagus castanea) chiefly used for fencing. BEACH (Fagus sylvatica) three varieties. PINE (Pi­nus) seven species▪ 1. White (Pinus strobus) the prince of the Amer­ican forests, in size, age and majesty of appearance. It is found in the greatest abundance in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont—Excel­lent for masts, bowsprits and yards for ships.—2. Yellow (Pinus pinea) its plank and boards are used for the floors of houses and the decks of ships—3. Black or Pitch pine (Pinus taeda) when burnt in kilns it makes the best of charcoal; its knots and roots being full of the ter [...]binthine oil, when kindled, afford a brighter light than candles; its foot is collected and used for lampblack. It grows sparsely in the N. England and middle States, but in the greatest plenty in the south­ern States, between the sea coast and the mountains. From it they [...] tar in large quantities. 4. The Larch (Pinus larix) Its turpen­ti [...]e is said to be the same with the Burgundy pitch. Besides these, naturalists reckon the Fir (Pinus balsamea)—Spruce (Pinus canadensis) [...]Hemlock (Pinusabies)—ARBOR VITAE (Thuya occidentalis) the same [...] what is called WHITE CEDAR. JUNIPER or RED CEDAR (Juni­perns virginica) It produces the Juniperberry. WHITE CEDAR, of the southern States (Cupressus Thyoides) different from the white ce­dar of the northern states. CYPRESS (Cupressus disticha) Found only in the southern states—Used for shingles and other purposes. Grows in swamps, very large. WHITE WILLOW (Salix alba) The bark of its root is an excellent substitute for the Peruvian bark. ASH (Fraxinus americana) two species, Black, or swamp Ash, and White Ash. MAPLE, three species; 1. White (Acer negundo) much used in cabinet work. 2. Red (Acer rubrum) 3. Black Rock or Sugar Maple (Acer saccha [...]inum) Its sap has a saccharine quality; and when refined and hardened by boiling and baking, makes a well tasted and wholesome sugar, the manufacture of which has greatly increased in the eastern and middle States, within a few years past.

There is in the United States, an infinitude of trees of less note, and many probably equally noticeable with those enumerated, for a catalogue and descriptions of which, I must refer the reader, till a more perfect catalogue he furnished by Dr. Cutler and Dr. Ba [...]ton▪ to Catesby's Natural History—Dr. Clayton's Flora Virginica—Mr. Jefferson's Notes on Virginia—Mr. Bartram's Travels through North and South Carolina, &c.—Dr. Cutler's paper in the Memoirs of the American Academy—and Dr. Belknap's History of New Hampshire, Vol. III.

Exotic Fruits.] Of these, Apples are the most common in the [Page 174] United States. They grow in the greatest plenty and variety in [...] eastern and middle States; and the cyder which is expressed [...] them, affords the most common and wholesome liquor that is [...] by the inhabitants. The Crab Apple (Pyrus coronaria) though not an [...] ­oti [...], on account of its being a genuine, but distinct species of the [...] ­ple, ought to be mentioned in this connection. It grows in all [...] of North America, which have been explored, from the Atlantic [...] far west as the Missisippi. Its blossoms are remarkably fragrant; [...] fruit small, possessing, perhaps of all vegetables, the keenest [...]. The cyder made of this fruit, is admired by connoisseurs. It [...] excellent vinegar. The European Crab Apple is very different [...] ours. The other exotic fruits are pears, peaches, quinces, mulberries, plumbs, cherries, currants, barberries, of all which, except quinces [...] barberries, we have many species and varieties. These, with a [...] apricots, and nectarines, flourish in the eastern states, and are i [...] [...] section in the middle states. ^*

The exotic fruits of the southern states, besides those already men­tioned, are figs, oranges and lemons.

Pulse and Hortuline Plants and Roots.} Besides those transplanted from Europe [...] America, of which we have all the various kinds that Europe produces, the following are natives of this country. Potatoes, (Solanum tuberosum) Ground Nuts, a sort of potatoe, probably a species, highly relished by some people; Tobacco (Nicotian [...]) [...] Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo)—Cymlings (Cucurbita verrucosa) [...] Squashes (Cucurbito melopepo) Cantelope melons, Beans, Peas, [...] Probably others.

ANIMALS.] America contains, at least, one half, and the terri [...] of the United States about one fourth of the quadrupeds of the know [...] world. Some of them are common to North America, and to [...] European and Asiatic parts of the Eastern Continent; others are pe­culiar to this country. All those that are common to both [...] ­nents, are found in the northern parts of them, and are such as may [...] supposed to have migrated from one continent to the other. Com­paring individuals of the same species, inhabiting the different conti­nents, some are perfectly similar; between others there is some dif­ference in size, colour or other circumstances; in some few instances [...] European animal is larger than the American; in others the reverse i [...] true. A similar variety, arising from the temperature of the [...] quantity of food furnished in the parts they inhabit, degree of safety, &c. takes place between individuals of the same species, in different parts of this continent.

But our information on this suject is not sufficient to autho [...] many observations. It is very probable that some of our quadrup [...] are utterly unknown; others are known only by common report, [...] hunters and others, and therefore could not be scientifically described and with respect to many others, the multiplying and misapplying names has produced great uncertainty and confusion. ^§

[Page 175] The Rev. Dr. Cutler, has obliged me with the Following Catalogue of our Animals, with their Linnoean names annexed.

The importance of this part of our natural History, has induced [...] to pay the most assiduous attention to it, and to seek information from every authority on the subject. With the liberal and generous assistance of an ingenious friend, ^* I have been enabled to form the following catalogue of the Quadruped animals within the United States, and to add the descriptions of them which succeed.

N. B. Those Animals to which an asterism ^* is prefixed, [...] animals; whose skins are sometimes dressed in allum, with the [...] and worn in dress; or whose fur or soft hair is used for various [...] ­ufactural purposes.

The Wolf, Fox, Weasel, Ermine, Otter, Flying Squirrel, [...], Water Rat, are of the same species with the European anima [...] [...] same name.

The Fallow Deer, Grey Fox, Martin, Otter, Opossum, Wood [...] [...] Hare, some of the Squirrels, and the Beaver, have been tamed. [...] ­bably most of these, and some others, might be perfectly do [...] ­ed. It has been observed of our wild animals, in general, the [...] are not of so savage a nature as those in Europe.

Of the animals supposed to be larger in America than in [...] are the following, viz. Moose or Elk, Fallow Deer, Bear, [...], Otter, and Beaver. Of those that are less, are the Hare, Red [...] and Shrew Mouse.

MAMMOTH.] This name has been give to an unknown [...] whose bones are found in the northern parts of both the old [...] world. From the form of their teeth, they are supposed to have [...] carnivorous. Like the Elephant they were armed with tusks of [...] but they obviously differed from the elephant in size; their [...] prove them to have been 5 or 6 times as large. These enormous [...] are found in several parts of North America, * particularly about [...] [Page 177] salt licks or springs, near the Ohio river. These licks were formerly frequented by a vast number of graminivorous animals, on account of the salt, of which they are excessively fond. From the appearance of these bones, some of which are entirely above ground, others wholly bur­ried, it is probable that the animals died at different periods, some perhaps as lately as the first settlement of this country by the Euro­peans.

Mr. Jefferson informs us that a late Governour of Virginia, having [...] some delegates of the Delawares, what they knew or had heard respecting this animal, the chief speaker immediately put himself into [...] oratorial attitude, and with a pomp suited to the supposed elevation of the subject, informed him that it was a tradition handed down from their fathers, "That in ancient times a herd of them came to the Big-bone licks, and began an universal destruction of the bears, deer, elks, buffaloes, and other animals which had been created for [...] use of the Indians: that the Great Man above, looking down and seeing this, was so enraged that he seized his lightning, descended to the earth, seated himself upon a neighbouring mountain, on a rock, on which his seat and the print of his feet are still to be seen, and [...] his bolts among them till the whole were slaughtered, except the [...]ig bull, who, presenting his forehead to the shafts, shook them [...] as they fell; but at length missing one, it wounded him in the [...]; whereon, springing round, he bounded over the Ohio, the Wa­ [...], the Illinois, and finally over the great lakes, where he is living at this day." ^*

HIPPOPOTAMUS.] That this animal ever existed in America was [...] supposed till a few years ago. The ingenious Dr. Mitchill, in a [...] to the Author, says, "That in the year 1788, some teeth were [...] on Long Island, which, from their shape, size and consistence, [...] a doubt, belong to the HIPPOPOTAMUS. Some of them, which [...] presented to me, I forwarded to Mr Peale of Philadelphia. They [...] exactly with those of the same animal, which I saw in the [...] Museum, at Oxford; and in the Leveri [...] Collection at Lon­ [...]. They moreover correspond, precisely, with the plate and de­scription [Page 178] of that animal's skull and jaws, as given by Dr. Grew, i [...] Musco Regalis Societatis; and printed at London in folio, 1681. He is, therefore, worthy of a place in our history as well as the Mam­moth."

BISON. This animal has generally been called the Buffalo, but very improperly, as this name has been appropriated to another [...] ­mal. He is of the same species with our common neat cat [...] [...] difference being the effect of domestication. Compared with the [...] cattle, the Bison is considerably larger, especially about the fore [...] of his body. On his shoulders, arises a large fleshy or grisly substa [...] which extends along the back. The hair on his head, neck and shoulders, is long and woolly, and all of it is fit to be spun, or wro [...] into hats. Calves from the domestic cow and wild bull, are sometimes raised; but when they grow up, they become so wild that no co [...] ­fence will confine them.—Is found in the middle States.

These animals were once exceedingly numerous in the western parts of Virginia, and Pennsylvania; and so late as the year 1766, herd of [...] were frequently seen in Kentucky, and from thence to the Missisippi.

The American forests abound with various animals of the deer kind▪ Naturalists have arranged them differently. I have followed M. [...] Buffon, who has reduced them all to the several species known in Eu­rope.

MOOSE. Of these there are two kinds, the black and the grey. The black are said to have been from 8 to 12 feet high; at present they are very rarely seen. The grey Moose are generally as tall as a horse, and some are much taller; both have spreading▪ palmated [...], weighing from 30 to 40 pounds. These are shed annually, in the month of February. They never run, but trot with amazing speed. In summer they feed on wild grasses, and the leaves of the most mucil­aginous shrubs. In winter they form herds; and when the snow falls, by moving constantly in a small circle, they tread the snow hard, and form what is called a pen. While the snow is deep and will not bear them, they are confined within this pen, and eat all the bark and twigs within their reach. They are considered as of the same species with the Elk of the eastern continent.—They are found in New England.

CARIBOU. This animal is distinguished by its branching▪ palmated horns, with brow antlers. He is probably the rein deer of the north­ern parts of Europe. From the tendons of this animal, as well as of the Moose, the aboriginal natives made very tolerable thread.—Found in the District of Main.

DEER. The Red Deer ^* has round branching horns. Of this spe­cies we have three or four different kinds or varieties; one of which, found on the Ohio river, and in its vicinity, is very large, and there commonly called the ELK.

The FALLOW DEER * has branching, palmated horns. In the United States, these animals are larger than the European, of a differ­ent colour, and supposed, by some, to be of a different species. In the southern states, are several animals, supposed to be varieties of the ROE DEER. *

BEAR. Of this animal two sorts are found in the northern states; both are black, but different in their forms and habits. One has short legs, [Page 179] a thick, clumsy body, is generally fat, and is very fond of sweet, vege­table food, such as sweet apples, Indian corn in the milk, berries, grapes, honey, &c. Probably he is not carnivorous. As soon as the first snow falls, he betakes himself to his den, which is a hole in a cleft of rocks, a hollow tree, or some such place; here he gradually becomes torpid, and dozes away the winter, sucking his paws, and expending the stock of fat which he had previously acquired.

The other sort is distinguished by the name of the RANGING BEAR, and seems to be a grade between the preceding and the wolf. His legs are longer, and his body more lean and gaunt. He is carnivo­rous, frequently destroying calves, sheep and pigs; and sometimes children. In winter he migrates to the southward. The former ap­pears to be the common black bear of Europe; the latter corresponds to the brown bear of the Alps; and is probably of the same species with those spoken of 2 Kings ii. 24th, which formerly inhabited the mountainous parts of Judea, between Jericho and Bethel.—Found in all the states.

The WOLVERENE, called in Canada the Carcajou, and by hunters the Beaver eater, seems to be a grade between the bear and the wood­chuck. He agrees exactly with the badger of Europe. His length is [...] s [...]et and upwards; his circumference nearly two feet; his head and ears resemble a woodchuck's; his legs short; feet and paws large and strong; tail about 7 inches long, black and very bushy or shaggy; hair about two inches long, and very coarse; his head, sallow grey; back almost black; breast, sported with white; belly, dark brown; sides and rump, light reddish brown. This animal lives in holes, cannot run fast, and has a clumsy appearance. He is very mischievous to hunters, following them when setting their traps, and destroying their game, particularly the beaver.—Found in the northern states.

WOLF. Of this animal, which is of the dog kind, or rather the dog himself in his savage state, we have great numbers, and a consid­erable variety in size and colour. The dimensions of a skin, measured of writing this account, were as follows; length of the body 5 feet: the fore legs 18 inches; of the hind legs 15 inches; of the tail 18 inches. The circumference of the body was from 2½ to 3 feet. The colour of these animals in the northern states, is generally a light, dirty fallow, with a list of black along their back. In some, the black is extended down their sides, and sometimes forms waving streaks; others are said to be spotted: Some of them, particularly in the southern states, are entirely black and considerably smaller. The Indians are said to have so far tamed some of these animals before their acquaint­ance with the Europeans, as to have used them in hunting. They next made use of European dogs, and afterwards of mongrels, the off­spring of the wolf and dog, as being more docile than the former, and more oager in the chase than the latter. The appearance of ma­ny of the dogs, in the newly settled parts of the country, indicate their relation to the wolf.—Found in all the states.

FOX. Of foxes we have a great variety; such as the Silver Fox, Red Fox, Grey Fox, Cross Fox, Brant Fox, and several others. Natural­ists have generally supposed that there is more than one species of foxes, but they differ very much in their mode of arranging them. It is highly probable however, that there is but one species of these ani­mals, [Page 180] as they are found in all their varieties of size, and of [...] ­riously intermixed, in different parts of the United States. Fo [...] and other animals furnished with fur, of the northern states, are larger [...] those of the southern.

CATAMOUNT. This animal, the most dreaded by hunters of [...] of the inhabitants of the forests, is rarely seen, which is probably [...] reason why no account of him has ever been published, to our [...] ledge, except what is contained in a letter of Mr. Collinson's to [...] Buffon. The dimensions of one, killed a few years ago, is [...] Hampshire, as nearly as could be ascertained by the skin, worn as [...] lows; the length of his body (including the head) 6 feet; circumfer­ence of his body 2½ feet; length of his tail 3 feet, and of his [...] about 1 foot. The colour, along his back, is nearly black; [...] sides, a dark reddish brown; his feet black. He seems not [...] ­ed for running, but leaps with surprizing agility. His favouri [...] is blood, which, like other animals of the cat kind, he takes from [...] jugular vessels of cattle, deer, &c. leaving the carcase. Smaller [...] he takes to his den; and he has been known to carry off a [...]. He seems to be allured by five, which terrifies all other carniv [...] animals, and betrays no fear either of man of beast.—He is [...] the northern and middle states.

COUGAR. The body of this animal is about 5 feet long; him [...] longer in proportion to his body, than those of the common cat [...] colour is a dark fallow. In his habits and manners he resem [...] rest of the family. He is found in the southern states, and th [...] [...] ­ed the Tyger.

MOUNTAIN CAT. ( Pardalis, Linn.) ( Ocelot, de Buffon.)—The [...] of his body is from 3½ to 4 feet; his tail about 2 feet. His [...] is a fallow ground, with black spots and stripes. The male has a [...] list along his back, and is the most beautiful animal of the cat [...]. He is exceedingly fierce, but will seldom attack a man—Founded [...] southern states.

LYNX. We have three kinds of the Lynx, each probably for [...]i [...]g a distinct species. The first, ( Lupus cervarius, Linn. 3d. [...] is called by the French and English Americans, Loup [...]. He is from 2½ to 3 feet in length; his tail is about 5 inches. His [...] is long, of a light grey colour, forming, in some places, small, [...] ­lar, dark shades; the end of his tail is black. His fur is [...] and thick. He is the Lynx of Siberia, and some of the northern pa [...] Europe. A few may be found in the northeastern parts of the dis­trict of Main; but in the higher latitudes they are more numer­ous.

The second, ( Catus cervarius, Linn.) is called by the French Amer­icans, Chat cervier; and in New England, the Wild-cat. He is consid­erably less than the former, or the Loup cervier. He is from [...] feet long; his tail is proportionably shorter, about three inches [...] and wants the tuft of black hair on the end of it. His hair is [...] or, particularly on his legs and feet; is of a darker colour, [...] dark sallow and green, variously intermixed. His fur is said to [...] a very different quality; his ears are shorter, and he has very [...] of the pencil of black hairs on the tips of them, which is so [...] ­able in the former kind. This animal destroyed many of the [...] of the first settlers of New England.

[Page 181] The third species is about the size of a common cat. The colour of the male is a bright brown or bay, and black spots on his legs. His tail is about 4 inches long, and encircled by 8 white rings: The fe­male is of a reddish grey.—Found in the middle and south­ern states.

MARGAY. This animal very much resembles the European wild­cat, both in form and size. His colour is like that of some of our tabby cats—dark, waving streaks, on a sallow ground.—Found in the southern states.

KINCAJOU. This animal is frequently confounded with the Carc [...]jou, though he resembles him in nothing but the name. He belongs to the family of cats; at least he very much resembles them. He is about as large as a common cat, and is better formed for agility and speed, than for strength. His tail gradually tapers to the end, and is as long as his whole body. His colour is yellow. Between him and the fox there is perpetual war. He hunts in the same manner as do other animals of that class; but being able to suspend himself by twin­ing the end of his tail round the limb of a tree, or the like, he can pursue his prey where other cats cannot; and when he attacks a large animal, his tail enables him to secure his hold till he can open the blood vessels of the neck. In some parts of Canada, these animals are very numerous, and make great havoc among the deer, and do not spare even the neat cattle. But we have heard of none in these states, except a few in the northern parts of New Hampshire.

The WEASEL is about 9 inches in length; his body is remarkably round and slender; his tail long and well furnished with hair 5 his legs very short, and his toes armed with sharp claws. His hair is short and thick, and of a pale, yellowish colour, except about the breast, where it is white. This is a very sprightly animal; notwith­standing the shortness of his legs, it seems to dart rather than to run. He kills and eats rats, striped squirrels and other small quadrupeds: He likewise kills fowls, sucks their blood, and esteems their eggs a delicacy.

The EZMINE does not differ materially from the Weasel, in size, form or habits: even his colour is the same in summer, except that the end of his tail is black, and the edges of his ears and toes are white. In winter he is entirely white, except the tip of the tail. He is generally considered as forming a species distinct from the Wea­sel; but Linnaeus makes them the same.—They are said to be found in Canada, and Dr. Belknap mentions that a few have been seen in New Hampshire.

In addition to the preceding we have another variety of this family. It appears to differ from the Weasel in no respect, except its colour, which is perfectly white, both in summer and winter.

MARTIN. This animal is called the Martin (Marte) by M. de Buffon:—in England, the pine Martin, fir Martin, yellow breasted Martin, pine Weasel, and yellow breasted Weasel; in New England, the Sable; and by the Indians, Wauppanaugh. He is formed like the Weasel; is generally about 16 inches long, and is of a sallow colour; but his size, and the shades of his colour, vary in different parts of the country. Some have spots of yellow on the breast, others of white, and others have none. He keeps in forests, chiefly on trees, and lives by hunting.—He is found in the northern states.

[Page 182] MINK. The Mink is about as large as a Martin, and of the same form. The hair on its tail is shorter; its colour is generally, black some have a white spot under their throats; others have none. They burrow in the ground, and pursue their prey both in fresh and salt wa­ter. Those which frequent the salt water are of a larger size, light [...] colour, and have inferior fur. They are found in considerable number [...] both in the southern and northern states.

OTTER. The Otter very much resembles the Mink in its [...] and habits. Its colour is not so dark; its fixe much larger, being about 3 feet long and 15 inches in circumference. It lives in holes in banks near the water, and feeds on fish and amphibious animals. Found in all the states.

FISHER. In Canada he is called Pekan: In these states frequently the Black cat, but improperly, as he does not belong to the class of cats. He has a general resemblance to the Martin, but is considera­bly larger, being from 20 to 24 inches in length, and 12 in circumfer­ence. His tail is a little more than half his length; its hair long and bushy. His fore legs, about 4½ inches long, his hinder legs 6 inch­es. His ears short and round. His colour is black, except the head, neck and shoulders, which are a dark grey. He lives by hunt­ing, and occasionally pursues his prey in the water.—Found is the northern states.

SKUNK. This animal as about a foot and an half long, of a mod­erate height and size. His tail is long and bushy; his hair long and chiefly black; but on his head, neck and back, is found more of less of white, without any regularity or uniformity. He appears to see but indifferently, when the sun shines; and therefore in the day time, keeps close to his burrow. As soon as the twilight commences, be goes in quest of his food, which is principally beetles and other insects: He is also very fond of eggs and young chickens. His flesh is said to be tolerably good, and his fat is sometimes used as an emollient. But what renders this animal remarkable is, his being furnished with or­gans for secreting and retaining a liquor, volatile and saetid beyond any thing known, and which he has the power of emitting to the distance of a rod or more, when necessary for his defence. When this ammunition is expended he is quite harmless. ^* This volatile faetor is a powerful antispasmodic.—Found in all the states.

[Page 183] Another Stinkard, called the Squash, is said by Buffon, to be found in some of the southern states. He is of a chesnut colour; climbs trees, and kills poultry.

OPOSSUM. This animal is about a foot and a half long; has a long pointed nose, furnished with long stiff hairs; ears thin and nak­ed; tail naked, nearly as long as the body, and capable of holding the animal suspended; legs short; feet small and naked. He uses his forepaws like a Monkey. His body is well covered with a woolly for, white at the roots, and black at the ends. His hair is long, thin and coarse; its colour black and white, forming a grey of various shades; and these different shades are often so intermixed as to give a spotted or variegated appearance. But the most singular part of this animal is a kind of false belly or pouch, with which the female is fur­nished; it is formed by a duplicature of the skin;—is so placed as to include her teats, and has an aperture which she can open and shut at pleasure. She brings forth her young from four to six at a time, while they are not bigger than a bean;—incloses them in this pouch, and they, from a principle of instinct, affix themselves to her teats: Here they remain and are nourished till they are able to run about, and are afterwards taken in occasionally, particularly in time of dan­ger. The Opossum feeds on vegetables, particularly fruit. He like­wise kills poultry, sucks their blood, and eats their eggs. His fat is used instead of lard or butter.—Found in the southern and middle states.

WOODCHUCK. ( Monax, de Buffon.) His body is about 16 inches long, and nearly the same in circumference; his tail is moderately long, and full of hair. His colour is a mixture of sallow and grey. He digs a burrow in, or near, some cultivated field, and feeds on pulse, the tops of cultivated clover, &c. He is generally very fat, excepting in the spring. They young are good meat; the old are rather rank and disagreeable. In the beginning of October they retire to their burrows, and live in a torpid state about 6 months. In many respects he agrees with the Marmot of the Alps; in others he differs, and on the whole is probably not the same.

An animal resembling the Woodchuck is found in the southern states, which is supposed to form another species.

URCHIN. The Urchin, or Urson, is about two feet in length, and, when fat, the same in circumference. He is commonly called Hedge-Mog or Porcupine, but differs from both those animals in every char­acteristic mark, excepting has being armed with quills on his back and sides. These quills are nearly as large as a wheat straw; from three to four inches long, and, unless erected, nearly covered by the animal's hair. Their points are very hard, and filled with innumerable very small barbs or scales, whose points are raised from the body of the quill. When the Urchin is attacked by a dog, wolf, or other beast of prey, he throws himself into a posture of defence, by shortning his body, elevating his back, and erecting his quills. The assistant soon finds some of those weapons stuck into his mouth, or other part of his body, and every effort which he makes to free himself, causes them to penetrate, the farther; they have been known to bury themselves entirely in a few minutes. Sometimes they prove fatal; at other times they make their way out again through the skin from various parts of the body. If not molested, the Urchin is an inoffen­sive animal. He finds a hole or hollow which he makes his residence, [Page 184] and feeds on the bark and roots of vegetables. His flesh, in the opin­ion of hunters, is equal to that of a fucking pig.—Is found in the northern states.

HARE. Of this animal we have two kinds, which appear to the different species: the one is commonly called the white Rabbit [...] Coney; the other is simply the Rabbit; but from the proporti [...] length of their hinder legs, and other specific marks, they both [...] to the family of the hare. The former has a covering of [...] white hair, which comes on before winter, and falls off the [...] spring. He is about half the size of a large European hare, and [...] as large as the other kind. The latter burrows in the ground, like [...] rabbit. They have both been found in the same tract of country [...] have not been known to associate. The former has been found in the northern states, and appears to be the same as the hare of the northern part of Europe; the latter is found in all the states, and is probably a species peculiar to America.

RACCOON. The Raccoon, in the form and size of his body, resem­bles the fox; his legs are larger and shorter. His toes are long, and armed with sharp claws. His body is grey; his tail annulated with alternate rings of black and brown. In his manners he resembles the squirrel; like him he lives on trees, feeds on Indian corn, acorns, &c. and serves himself with his fore paws. His flesh is good meat, and his fur is valued by the hatters. He is found in all the climates in the temperate zone in North America.

The FOX SQUIRREL. Of this animal, there are several varieties, black, red and grey. It is nearly twice as large as the common grey squirrel, and is found in the southern States, and is peculiar to this continent.

The GREY SQUIRREL of America, does not agree exactly with that of Europe, but is generally considered as of the same species. Its [...] indicates its general colour; but some are black; and others black on the back and grey on the sides. They make a nest of moss in a hollow tree, and here they deposit their provision of nuts and acorns; this is the place of their residence during the winter, and here they bring forth their young. Their summer house, which is built of sticks and leaves, is placed near the top of the tree. They sometimes mig [...]ts is considerable numbers. If in their course they meet with a river, each of them takes a shingle, piece of bark, or the like, and carries is to the water. Thus equipped, they embark, and erect their tails to the gentle breeze, which soon wafts them over in safety; but a [...] flaw of wind sometimes produces a destructive shipwreck. The great­er part of the males of this species is found castrated.

A Grey Squirrel is found in Virginia, nearly thrice as large as this Whether it be the same, or a different species, is uncertain.

The RED SQUIRREL, is less than the grey squirrel. It has a rod, list along its back; grey on its sides, and white under the belly. It differs in some respects from the common European squirrel; but [...] ­de Buffon considers it as the same species. Its food is the same [...] that of the grey squirrel, except that it sometimes feeds on the seeds of the pine and other evergreens; hence it is sometimes called the pine squirrel, and is found further to the northward than the grey squirrel. It spends part of its time on trees, in quest of food; but confident its hole, under some rock or log, as its home.

The STRIFED SQUIRREL, is still less than the last mentioned. Its [Page 185] colour is red. It has a narrow stripe of black along its back; at the dis­tance of about half an inch, on each side, is a stripe of white, border­ed with very narrow stripes of black. Its belly is white. In the males, the colors are brighter and better defined than in the fe­males. It is sometimes called a mouse squirrel, and ground squirrel, [...] its forming a burrow in loose ground. Linnaeus confounds it with a striped mouse squirrel, found in the north of Asia; but that animal is represented as in some measure resembling the mouse; whereas ours is a genuine squirrel. In summer it feeds on apples, peaches, and various kinds of fruit and seeds; and for its winter store says up nuts, acorns and grain. It sometimes ascends trees in quest of [...], but always descends on the appearance of danger; nor does it feel secure but in its hole, a stone wall, or some covert place. Found in the northern and and middle states.

FLYING SQUIRREL. This is the least and most singular of the class of squirrels. A duplicature of the the skin connects the fore and hinder legs together: by extending this membrane, it is able of leap much farther, and to alight with more safety than other squirrels. It lives in the holes of trees, and feeds on seeds.—Is found in all the States.

BAT. The Bat is so common and so singular a creature that a particular description of it is unnecessary.—Found both in America and Europe.

FIELD MOUSE. This species in England, is called the short tailed field mouse. It has a general resemblance to the common house mouse; but both its body and tail are larger and his hair has a slight reddish tint. Its food depends very much on its situation. In gardens it oft­en destroys young fruit trees by eating their bark; in fields and mea­dows, it feeds on the roots of grass, sometimes leaving a groove in the sward, which appears as if it had been cut out with a gouge. In woods, they are said to feed on acorns, and to lay up a large store of these in their burrows.

WOOD RAT. "This is a very curious animal; they are not half the size of the domestic rat; of a dark brown or black colour; their tails slender and short in proportion, and covered thinly with short hair. They are singular with respect to their ingenuity and great labour in con­structing their habitations, which are conical pyramids, about 3 or 4 feet high, constructed with dry branches, which they collect with great labour and perseverance, and pile up without any apparent or­der; yet they are so interwoven with one another, that it would take a hear or wild-cat some time to pull one of these castles to pieces, and allow the animals sufficient time to retreat with their young.

There is likewise a ground-rat, twice as large as the common rat, and burrows in the ground."

[ Bartram's Travels.

SHREW MOUSE. This is the smallest of quadrupeds, and holds nearly the same place among them as the humming bird does among the feathered race. Some of the European shrew mice, are three inches long: we have seen but two or three of the American, and those dri­ed; but should not judge that those ever exceeded 2 inches. Their head, which constitutes about one third of their whole length, has some resemblance to that of a mole; the ears are wanting; their eyes scarce­ly visible; the nose very long, pointed and furnished with long hairs. In other respects these resemble the common mouse. They live in roods, and are supposed to feed on grain and insects.—Found in New-England.

[Page 186] MOLE. The purple mole is found in Virginia; the black mole in New-England; he lives in and about the water: they differ from one another, and both from the European.

The WATER RAT is about the size of the common rat; brown on the back and white under the belly; feeds on aquatic animals.

BEAVER. The beaver is an amphibious animal, which cannot live for any length of time in the water; and can exist without it pro­vided he has the convenience of sometimes bathing himself. The largest beavers, formerly, were four feet in length, and weighed 50 or 60 pounds. At present they are not more than three feet in length, and may weigh from 25 to 30 pounds. Their head of this animal is large, and his ears short and round. Their fore teeth are prominent, long broad, strong and grooved or hollowed like a gouge. Their fore legs are short, with toes separate; their hinder legs are long, with toes webbed. The tail is large, broad and scaly, resembling the body of a fish. Their colour is generally a dark brown, but varies according to the climate they inhabit. Their hair is long and coarse; the fur very thick, fine and highly valued. The castor used in medicine is found is sacks formed behind the kidneys.

Their houses are always situated in the water; sometimes they make use of a natural pond, but generally they choose to form one by build­ing a dam across some brook or rivulet. For this purpose they select a number of saplings of soft wood, generally of less than 6 inches diameter, but sometimes of 16 or 18 inches; these they fell, and divide into proper lengths, and place them in the water, so that the length of the sticks make the width of the dam. These sticks they lay in mud or clay, their tails serving them for tr [...]wels, as their teeth did for axes. These dams are six or eight feet thick at bottom; sloping on the side opposed to the stream; and are about a quarter as broad at top as at bottom. Near the top of the dam they leave one or more waste ways, or sliding places to carry off the surplus water.

The formation of their cabins is no less remarkable. They consist of two stories, one under, the other above water. They are shaped like the oval bee-hive; and of a size proportioned to the number of inhabitants. The walls of the lower apartment are two or three feet thick, formed like their dams; those of the upper story are thinner, and the whole, on the inside, plaistered with mud. Each family con­structs and inhabits its own cabin. The upper apartments are curi­ously strewed with leaves, and rendered neat, clean and comfortable. The winter never surprizes these animals, before their business is com­pleted; for their houses are generally finished by the last of September, and their stock of provisions laid in, which consists of small pieces of wood deposited in the lower apartments. Before a storm, all hands are employed in repairing or strengthning their dams. They retain this industrious habit even after they are domesticated. In summer they roam abroad and feed on leaves, twigs, and food of that kind. These beavers are considered as the same species as those in Europe, but are vastly superior to them in every respect.

There is likewise a race of beavers, called Terriers, who dig holes and live a solitary unsocial life. These are probably savages, who have never formed themselves into societies, and consequently have not made those improvements, which are to be acquired only in a social state. Found in all the States.

The MUSQUA [...] [...] MU [...] about [...] inches in length, an [Page 187] a foot in circumference. His tail is nearly a foot long; his hair very short; the colour on his back, dark; on his sides, generally reddish; his head and tail very much resemble those of a rat. This animal is furnished with glands, which separate a substance that has the smell of musk. In his mode of living, he is a distant imitator of the beaver; builds a rude cabin in shallow water, and feeds on vegetables. Found in the northern and middle States.

The MORSE or SEA-COW, more properly called the Sea-Elephant, has two large ivory tusks, which shoot from the upper jaw; Its head al­so is formed like that of the elephant, and would entirely resemble it in that part, if it had a trunk; but the morse is deprived of that instru­ment, which serves the elephant in place of an arm and hand, and has real arms. These members, like those of the seal, are shut up within the skin, so that nothing appears outwardly but its hands and feet. Its body is long and tapering, thickest towards the neck; the toes and the hands, or feet, are covered with a membrane, and terminated by short and sharp pointed claws. Excepting the two great tusks, and the cut­ting teeth, the morse perfectly resembles the seal; it is only much larger and stronger, the morse, being commonly from twelve to sixteen feet in length, and eight or nine in circumference; whereas the largest seals are no more than seven or eight feet long. The morses and seals frequent the same places. They have the same habits in every respect, except that there are fewer varieties of the morse than of the seal; they are likewise more attached to one particular climate, and are rare­ly found, except in the northern seas.

The SEAL, of which there are several species, is an amphibious ani­mal, living the greater part of the time in the sea, and feeds on marine plants. These animals formerly frequented our northern shores; but at present have nearly forsaken them.

MANATI. This animal forms the connecting link between beasts and fishes. It cannot be called a quadrupede; nor can it entirely be termed a fish; it partakes of the nature of the fish by its two feet or hands; but the hinder legs, which are almost wholly concealed in the bodies of the seal and morse, are entirely wanting in the manati. In­stead of two short feet, and a small, narrow tail, which is placed in a horizontal direction in the morse, the manati has only a thick tad, spread out broad like a fan. It is a very clumsy mishapen animal, with a head thicker than that of an ox; eyes small; and the two feet are placed near the head, for the purpose of swimming. It is of suffi­cient size to form a load for two oxen. Its flesh, which is more like beef than fish, is said to be excellent for eating. They are about 15 feet long, and 6 broad. As this animal has only fore feet, it has obtained the name of Manati, i. e. "an animal with both hands." The female has breasts placed forward like those of a woman's, and she generally brings forth two young ones at a time, which she suckles. It is not properly amphibious; it only raises its head out of the water to feed on the herbage by the sea side. This animal is very common in South America, and some, it is said, have been found in the southern States.

SAPAJOU. SAGOIN. There are various species of animals said to inhabit the country on the lower part of the Missisippi, called Sapajous and Sagoins. The former are capable of suspending them­selves by their tails: the latter are not. They have a general resem­lance to monkeys; but are not sufficiently known, to be particularly

[Page 188] BIRDS.] Several catalogues of the birds in the southern and middle states, have been published by different authors; and one, [...] those in New Hampshire, by Dr. Belknap; but no general catab [...] of the birds in the American States has yet appeared. The follow [...] catalogue, which claims to be the most full and complete of any [...] published, though fat from perfection, has been carefully selec [...] from Bartram's Travels, Jefferson's Notes of Virginia, Belknap's History of New-Hampshire, and a Manuscript furnished by Dr. [...] Bartram's catalogue, as far as it extends, appears to be the most [...] rate and complete, and his mode of arrangement the most natur [...] [...] intelligible; I have therefore adopted it, and inserted his noted [...] references. ^*

Besides these, the following have not been described or classed, un­less, under different names, they are contained in the above catalogue.

The birds of America, says Catesby, generally exceed those of Eu­rope in the beauty of their plumage, but are much inferior to them in the melody of their notes.

The middle states, including Virginia, appear to be the climates, in North America, where the greatest number and variety of birds of passage celebrate their nuptials and rear their offspring, with which they annually return to more southern regions. Most of our birds are birds of passage from the southward. The eagle, the pheasant, grous and partridge of Pennsylvania, several species of woodpeckers, the crow, blue jay, robin, marsh wren, several species of sparrows or snow birds, and the swallow, are perhaps nearly all the land birds that con­tinue the year round to the northward of Virginia.

Very few tribes of birds build or rear their young in the south or maritime parts of Virginia, in Carolina, Georgia and Florida; yet all those numerous tribes, particularly of the soft billed kind, which breed in Pennsylvania, pass, in the spring season, through these regions in a few weeks time, making but very short stages by the way; and again, but few of them winter there on their return southwardly.

It is not known how far to the south they continue their rout, dur­ing their absence from the northern and middle states.

"The SWAN ( Cygnus ferus) is the largest of the aquatic tribe of birds which is seen in this country. One of them has been known to weigh 36 lb. and to be 6 feet in length, from the bill to the feet, when stretched. It makes a found resembling that of a trumpet, both when in the water and on the wing." (Belknap.)

The CANADIAN GOOSE ( A [...]ser Canaden [...]) is a bird of passage, and [Page 196] gregarious. The offspring of the Canadian and common goose are mongrels, and reckoned more valuable than either of them singly, but do not propagate.

The P [...]ARMIGAN ( Tetrao lagopus) ordinarily inhabits the colder cli­mates about Hudson's Bay, but is sometimes driven, through want of food, to the more southern latitudes. In the winter of 1788 these birds were taken plentifully about Quebec. Whenever the winter of the Arctic region sets in with rain, so as to cover the branches and leaves of trees with a glaze of ice, they are deprived of their food, and obliged to sly to the south, to a milder climate, where it can be procured. Hence they frequently visit the United States. Their feathers are mostly white, covered with down quite to the nails, and their flesh black, and of an exquisite relish.

Probably this is a different bird from Bartram's Mountain Cock or Grous, though both have the same Linnaean name.

The QUAIL or PARTRIDGE ( Tetrao minor, s-coturnix) This bird is the Quarl of New England, and the Partridge of the southern states; but is properly neither. It is a bird peculiar to America. The Par­tridge of New England ( Tetrao tympanus) is the Pheasant of Pennsyl­vania, but is miscalled in both places. It is a species of the Grous. Neither the Pheasant, Partridge or Quail, are found in America.

CUCKOW ( Cuculus Caroliniensis) These birds are said not to pair, like the rest of the feathered tribes. When the female appears on the wing she is often attended by two or three males. Unlike all o­ther birds, she does not build a nest of her own, but takes the oppor­tunity, while the Hedge Sparrow, (probably they make use of other nests) is laying her eggs, to deposite her egg among the rest, leaving the future care of it entirely to the hedge sparrow. The cuckow's, egg requires no longer incubation than her own. When the hedge spar­row has sat her usual time, and disengaged the young cuckow and some of her own offspring from their shells, the young cuckow, astonishing as it may seem, immediately sets about clearing the nest of the young sparrows, and the remaining unhatched eggs, and with sur­prizing expertness soon accomplishes the business, and remains sole possessor of the nest, and the only object of the sparrow's future care. ^*

The WAKON BIRD, which probably is of the same species with the bird of Paradise, receives its name from the ideas the Indians have of its superior excellence; the Wakon Bird being in their language the bird of the Great Spirit. It is nearly the size of a swallow, of a brown colour, shaded about the neck with a bright green. The wings are of a darker brown than the body. Its tail is composed of four or five feathers, which are three times as long as its body, and which are beautifully shaded with green and purple. It carries this fine length of plumage in the same manner as the peacock does his, but it is not known whether like him, it ever raises it to an erect position.

The WHETSAW is of the cuckow kind, being, like that, a solitary bird, and scarcely ever seen. In the summer months it is heard in the groves, where it makes a noise like the filing of a saw, from which cir­cumstance it has received its name.

The HUMMING BIRD ( Trochilus colubris) is the smallest of all the feathered inhabitants of the air. Its plumage surpasses description. On its head is a small tuft of jetty black; its breast is red; its belly [Page 197] white; its back, wings and tail of the finest pale green: small specks of gold are scattered over it with inexpressible grace: and to crown the whole, an almost imperceptible down softens the several colours, and produces the most pleasing shades.

AMPHIBIOUS REPTILES.] Among these are the mud tortoise or turtle (Testudo denticulata.) Speckled land tortoise (testudo caro­lina.) Great soft shelled tortoise of Florida (Testudo na [...]o cylindracea elongato, truncato. Bartram.)—When full grown it weighs from 30 to 40 pounds, extremely fat and delicious food.—Great land tortoise, called gopher, its upper shell is about 18 inches long, and from 10 to 12 broad.—Found south of Savanna River.

Two species of fresh water tortoises, inhabit the tide water rivers in the southern States, one is large, weighing from 10 to 12 pounds; the back shell nearly of an oval form; the other species small; but both are esteemed delicious food.

Of the frog kind, (Ranoe) are many species. The road (Rana luso?) several species, the red, brown and black. The former are the largest; the latter the smallest. Pond frog (Rana oc [...]llata.) Green fountain frog (Rana esculanta.) Tree frog (Rana mu [...]ulata.) Bull frog (Rana boans.) Besides these are the dusky brown, spotted frog of Carolina. 8 or 9 inch­es long from the nose to the extremity of the toes; their voice resembles the grunting of a swine. The bell frog, so called because their voice is fancied to be exactly like that of a loud cow bell. A beautiful green frog, whose noise is like the barking of little dogs, or the yelp­ing of puppies. A less green frog, whose notes resemble those of young chickens.—Little grey speckled frog, who make a noise like the strik­ing of two pebbles together under the surface of the water. There is yet an extremely diminutive species of frogs, called by some Savanna crickets, whose notes are not unlike the chattering of young birds or crickets. They are found in great multitudes after plentiful rains.

Of lizards (Lacertoe) we have also many species. The alligator, or American crocodile, is a very large, ugly, terrible, creature, of pro­digious strength, activity and swiftness in the water. They are from 12 to 23 feet in length; their bodies are as large as that of a horse, and are covered with horny places or scales, said to be impenetrable to a rifle ball, except about their heads and just behind their fore legs, where they are vulnerable; in shape they resemble the lizard. The head of a full grown alligator is about three feet long, and the mouth opens nearly the same length. The eyes are comparatively small, and the whole head, in the water, appears at a distance like a piece of rot­ten, floating wood. The upper jaw only, moves, and this they raise so as to form a right angle with the lower one. They open their mouths, while they lie basking in the sun, on the banks of rivers and creeks, and when filled with flies, musketoes and other insects, they suddenly let fall their upper jaw with surprising noise, and thus se­cure their prey. They have two large, strong, conical tusks, as white as ivory, which are not covered with any skin or lips, and which give the animal a frightful appearance. In the spring, which is their season for breeding, they make a most hideous and terrifying roar, re­sembling the Sound of distant thunder. The alligator is an evaporous animal; their nests, which are commonly built on the margin of some creek or river, at the distance of 15 or 20 yards from the water, are in the form of an obtuse cone, about 4 feet high, and 4 or 5 in di­ameter at their basis. They are constructed with a sort of mortar, made of a mixture of mud, grass and herbage. First they lay a floor of [Page 198] this composition, on which they deposite a layer of eggs; and [...] on this a stratum of their mortar, 7 or 8 inches thick; and their [...] other layer of eggs, and in this manner, one stratum upon [...] nearly to the top of the nest. They lay from one to two [...] eggs in a nest. These are hatched, it is supposed, by the [...] [...] sun, assisted, perhaps, by the fermentation of the vegetable [...] which they are deposited. The female, it is said, carefully [...] her own nest of eggs till they are all hatched. She them [...] brood under her care, and leads them about the shores like [...] a [...] does her chickens, and is equally courageous in defending [...] time of danger. When she lies basking upon warm banks [...] [...] brood around her, the young ones may be heard whining and barking [...] young puppies. The old feed on the young alligators, till they get [...] as that they cannot make a prey of them; so that happily but few [...] brood survive the age of a year. They are fond of the flesh of [...] hogs, which they devour whenever they have an opportunity. [...] principal food in fish. In Carolina and Georgia they retire [...] [...] ­dens, which they form by burrowing far under ground, [...] under water and working upwards, and there remain in a torpi [...] [...] during the winter. Further south, in warmer climates, they are [...] numerous, and more fierce and ravenous, and will boldly attack [...]. In South America, the carrion vulture is the instrument of [...] ­dence to destroy multitudes of young alligators, who would other [...] render the country uninhabitable.

Besides the alligator, we have of this species of amphibious [...] the brown lizard ( Lacerta punctatn.)—Swist ( Lacerta fusciata)— [...] lizard, or a little green cameleon of Carolina, about 6 or 7 inches [...] it has a large, red gill under its throat, and, like the camele [...], [...] [...] faculty of changing its colour. The striped lizard or scorpio [...]. mdash; [...] bellied, squamous lizards, several varieties.—Large copper [...] lizard.—Swift, slender, blue lizard, with a long slender tail, as [...] as that of the glass snake. The two last are rarely seen, but are some­times found about old log buildings in the southern States.

AMPHIBIOUS SERPENTS.] The characters by which amphibious serpents are distinguished are these, the belly is furnished with [...] and the tail has both scuta and scales. Of these reptiles, the following are found in the United States.

The RATTLE SNAKE ( Crotalus horridus) is the largest serpent yet known to exist in America. They are from 4 to upwards of 6 feet in length, and from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. Formerly, it is said, they were much larger. Their rattles consist of several articulated, crusta­ [...], or rather horny bags, forming their tails, which, when they move, make a rattling noise, warning people of their approach. It is said, they will not attack a person unless previously provoked. When molested or irritated, they erect their rattles, and by intervals, give the warning alarm. If pursued and overtaken, they instantly throw them­selves into the spiral coil; their whole body swells through rage, con­tinually rising and falling like a bellows; their beautiful particoloured skin becomes speckled and rough by dilatation; their head and neck are flattened; their cheeks swoolen, and their lips constricted, dis­covering their fatal fangs; their eyes red as burning coals, and their brandishing forked tongues, of the colour of the hottest flame, menaces a horrid death. They never strike unless sure of their mark. They are supposed to have the power of fascination, in an eminent degree; and it is generally believed that they charm birds, rabbits, squirrels and other animals, in such a manner as that they loose the power of resist­ance, and flutter and move slowly, but reluctantly, towards the yawning jaws of their devourers, and either creep into their mouths, or lie down and suffer themselves to be taken and swallowed. This dreaded reptile is easily killed. One well directed stroke on the head or across the back, with a stick not larger than a man's thumb, is sufficient to still the largest: and they are [...]o slow of motion that they cannot make [Page 200] their escape, nor do they attempt it when attacked. Many [...] remedies for the bite of a rattle snake have been prescribed [...] used with different success; the following, received from [...] au­thority, is recommended as a cure for the bite of all venom [...] [...] "Bind a ligature tight round the leg or thigh, above the part [...] as to interrupt the circulation; then open or scarify the wou [...] [...] lancet, knife or flint, and suck the wound or let a friend do it; [...] with any unctious matter, either animal or vegetable; or if [...] not be procured, make use of salt. Take care to keep the bow [...] [...] and free, by drinking sweet oil and milk or cream. If pure [...] at hand, apply it to the wound, after opening and sucking it, [...] [...] ­ference to any other thing; and eat plentifully of honey and [...].

The bastard rattle snake, is of the nature of the asp or adder of [...] Eastern continent; in form and colour they resemble the rattle snake, are 8 or 10 inches long; and very spiteful and venomous. [...] the rattle snake, they throw themselves into a coil; swell and [...] their bodies; continually darting out their heads, and seem capable of springing beyond their length.—Found in the southern States.

The moccasin snake is from 3 to 5 feet in length, and as thick as a man's leg: When disturbed by an enemy they throw themselves [...] a coil, and then gradually raise their upper jaw till it falls back, [...] touching the neck, at the same time vibrating their long purple [...] ­ed tongue, and directing their crooked poisonous fangs [...] their enemy. In this attitude the creature has a most terrifying ap­pearance. It is said their bite is incurable; but the probability [...] that it is not. Like the rattle snake they are slow in their [...] never bite a person unless provoked.—Found in abundance in [...] swamps and low grounds in the southern States.

The other moccasin snake is about 5 or 6 feet long, and as there is a man's arm; of a pale grey, sky coloured ground, with bro [...] [...] ­dulatory ringlets.—They are said not to be venomous; have no [...] ­onous sangs; are very swift and active, and flee from an [...]. Found in the southern States—and supposed to be a species of the wampum snake of Pennsylvania, if not the same snake, though [...] and deeper coloured.

The black snake is of various lengths from 3 to 6 feet, all over [...] a shining black; it is not venomous; is useful in destroying rats, [...] pursues its prey with wonderfully agility. It is said that it will [...] the rattle snake by twisting round it and whipping it to death [...] has been reported also that they have sometimes twined, themselves round the bodies of children, squeezing them till they die.—They are found in all the States.

The coach whip snake is of various and beautiful colours, some parts brown, or chocolate, others black and others white; it is 6 or 7 feet long, and very slender and active; it runs swiftly, and is quite in [...] ­fensive; but the Indians imagine that it is able to cut a man in two with a jerk of its tail. Like the black snake, it will run upon its [...] with its head and body erect.

The pine or bull snake, called also the Horn snake, is the largest of the serpent kind known in North America, except the rattle snake, and perhaps exceeds him in length.—They are pied black and white are inoffensive with respect to mankind, but devour squirrels, rabbit [...] and every other creature they can take as food. Their tails terri [...] with a hard horny spur, which they vibrate very quick when dis [...] ­ed, [Page 201] but they never attempt to strike with it. They have dens in the earth to which they retreat in time of danger.

The glass snake has a very small head; the upper part of its body is of a colour blended brown and green, most regularly and elegantly spotted with yellow. Its skin is very smooth and shining, with small scales, more closely connected than those of other serpents, and of a different structure. A small blow with a stick will separate the body, not only at the place struck, but at two or three other places, the muscles being articulated in a singular manner, quite through to the vertebra. They appear earlier in the spring than any other serpent, and are numerous in the sandy woods of the Carolinas and Georgia; and harmless.

The joint snake, if we may credit Carver's account of it, is a great curiosity. Its skin is as hard as parchment, and as smooth as glass. It is beautifully streaked with black and white. It is so stiff, and has so few joints, and those so unyielding, that it can hardly bend itself in­to the form of a hoop. When it is struck, it breaks like a pipe stem; and you may, with a whip, break it from the tail to the bowels into pieces not an inch long, and not produce the least tincture of blood. It is not venomous.

The two headed snake, has generally been considered as a monstrous production. I am disposed to believe, however, that it is a distinct species of serpents. I have seen one, and received accounts of three others, found in different parts of the United States. One of these was about 8 inches long, and both heads, as to every outward appear­ance, were equally perfect, and branching out from the neck at an a­cute angle.

The snakes are not so numerous nor so venomous in the northern as in the southern States. In the latter, however, the inhabitants are furnished with a much greater variety of plants and herbs, which af­ford immediate relief to persons bitten by these venomous creatures. It is an observation worthy of perpetual and grateful remembrance, that, wherever venomous animals are found, the God of natural has kindly provided sufficient antidotes against their poison.

FISHES] Fishes form the fourth class of animals in the Linnaean [...]. Mr. Pennant, in his British Zoology, distributes fish into three divisions, comprehending six orders. His divisions are, into Cetaceous, Cartilagenous, and Bony. We are not sufficiently informed on this part of our natural history, to arrange the following catalogue of our fishes agreeably to Mr. Pennant's judicious divisions.

The WHALE ( Balaena mysticetus) is the largest of all animals. In the northern seas some are found 90 feet in length; and in the [...] zone, where they are unmolested, whales have been seen 160 feet in length. The head is greatly disproportioned to the size of the body. In the middle of the head are two orifices, through which they sp [...]t water to a great height. The eyes are not larger than those of an [...], and are placed towards the back of the head, for the convenience of seeing both before and behind. They are guarded by eyelids as in quadrupeds; and they appear to be very sharp sighted, and quick of hearing. What is called Whale bone adheres to the upper jaw, and it formed of thin parallel laminae; some of the longest are 12 feet in length: Of these there are from 350 to 500, on each side, according to the age of the whale. The tail, which alone it uses to advance it­self in the water, is broad and semilunar, and when the fish lies on one side, its blow is tremendous.

In copulation, the male and female join, it is asserted, more hx [...]; and once in two years feel the accesses of desire. Their fidelity to each other is remarkable. An instance of it is related, by Mr. Ander­son, as follows: "Some fishers having struck one of two whales, a male and a female, in company, the wounded fish made a long and terrible resistance; it struck down a boat with two men in it, with a single blow of its tail, by which all went to the bottom. The other still attended its companion, and lent it every assistance; till, at last, the fish that was struck, sunk under the number of its wounds; while its faithful associate, disdaining to survive the loss, with great bellowing, stretched itself upon the dead fish, and shared its [...]." The whale goes with young nine or ten months, and generally pro­duces one young one, never above two, which are black and about to feet long. The teats of the female are placed in the lower [...] the belly. When she suckles her young, she throws herself [...] side, on the surface of the water, and the young ones attach the [...] to the teats. Nothing can exceed the tenderness and care of, [...] ­male for her young.

[Page 203] The Whale louse, Sword fish, and Thresher (a species of Squalus) are mortal enemies to the whale, who itself is an inoffensive animal.

Formerly whales were found in plenty upon the coasts of the Unit­ed States; at present they are scarce. The principal branch of the whale fishery in the United States, is carried on from Nantucket. The enterprize of the Nantucket whalemen is remarkable. Not sat­isfied with the scope which the Atlantic Ocean affords them, they have lately proceeded round Cape Horn, and penetrated the great Western Ocean, in pursuit of whales. Capt. Worth has lately returned from a very successful voyage, of which he gives the following account. viz. That he went to the southward, from Nantucket, doubled Cape Horn, and then pursued a north westwardly course, till he arrived at the island of Juan Fernandes.—That here, where a harpoon was scarcely ever thrown, the whales swim in shoals, and that it is quite a matter of choice, which of the company they shall fall upon.—That along the coast of Chili, for a considerable distance at sea, no rain falls to incommode the frying of blubber, as happens, to the great disadvant­age of the whaling business, in Hudson's Bay and Davis's straits; so that they can carry on their business without any of the interruptions common in other places; in consequence of which they can make more advantageous voyages. A cargo worth 6000£ sterling, it is said, has been procured in a 15 months voyage to this ocean. For the manner of taking the whales, see Part. II. page 9th.

The BELUGA (Delphinus beluga) is the 4th and last species of the Dolphin genus. The head is short; nose blunt; eyes and mouth small; in each side of each jaw are 9 teeth, short and rather blunt; those of the upper jaw are bent and hollowed, fitted to receive the teeth of the under jaw, when the mouth is closed; it has pectoral fins, nearly of an oval form; beneath the skin may be felt the bones of five fin­gers, which terminate at the edge of the fin in five very sensible pro­jections. This brings it into the next rank, in the order of beings, with the Manati, which we have already described under the head of animals.—Found in the northern parts of the American coasts; par­ticularly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Hudson's Bay.

The Lamprey frequents most of the rivers in the New England States, especially where the passage is not interrupted by dams. That part of the lamprey which is below the air holes is salted and dried for food. After the spawning season is over, and the young fry have gone down to the sea, the old fishes attach themselves to the roots and limbs of trees, which have fallen or run into the water, and there perish. A mortification begins at the tail, and proceeds upward to the vital part. Fish of this kind have been found at Plymouth, in New Hampshire, in different stages of putrefaction. ^*

The amphibious Lobster is found in the small brooks and swamps in the back parts of North Carolina. In its head is found the eye stone.

INSECTS.] The following catalogues of insects and vermes, except some small additions and the annexed descriptions, are taken from Dr. Belknap's History of New Hampshire, Vol. III. page 180-183.

[Page 206] The Wheat fly, commonly but improperly called the H [...]ssia [...] [...] which has, of late years, proved so destructive to the wheat in various parts of the United States, has generally been supposed, to have [...] [...] ported from Europe. This opinion, however, seems not [...]o be [...] founded. Count Ginanni of Ravenna, in a late learned [...] the diseases of wheat in its growing state, between seed time and [...] vest, has given an account of more than 50 different insects that [...] the Italian wheat, and yet our wheat fly is not delineated nor desc [...]i [...]. There is reason therefore to doubt its existence in the south of [...] Sir Joseph Banks said it did not exist in England; nor could he [...] ­lect any account of it in Germany. This destructive insect is proba­bly a non-descript, and peculiar to the United States. ^*

[Page 207] The Ink or Cuttle fish, is a curiosity. It is furnished with a cyst of black liquor, which is a tolerable substitute for ink. This it emits▪ when pursued by its enemies. The moment this liquor is emitted, the water becomes like a thick, black cloud, in the eyes of its pursuer, and it improves this opportunity to make its escape. This cyst of li­quor appears designed by Providence solely for the purpose of person­al defence, and is certainly a most apt and curious contrivance. The Wholemen call these fish, Sq [...]ids, and say that they are eaten in abun­dance by some species of whales.

POPULATION.] According to the census, taken by order of Con­gress, in 1790, the number of inhabitants in the United States of America, was three millions, nine hundred thirty thousand, nearly. In this number none of the inhabitants of the Territory N. W. of the River Ohio, and but a part of the inhabitants of the Territory south of the River Ohio, are included. These added, would undoubtedly have encreased the number to 3,950,000, at the period the census was tak­en. The increase since, on supposition that the inhabitants of the United States double once in twenty years, has been about 200,000: So that now, 1792▪ there are, probably 4,150,000, souls in the Amer­ican United States.

This number is rapidly multiplying by immigrations from Europe▪ as well, as by natural increase. The American Republic is composed▪ of almost all nations, languages, characters and religions which Europe can furnish; the greater part, however, are descended from the Eng­lish; and all [...]ay, perhaps, be distinguishingly denominated Federal A­mericans.

It has generally been considered as a fact, that, of the human race, [...] males than females are born into the world. The proportion commonly fixed on, is as thirteen to twelve. Hence a conclusive [...] has been derived against poligamy. The larger number of [...] has been believed to be a wise appointment of Providence, to balance the destruction of the males in war, by sea, and by other oc­cupations more hazardous to life than the domestic employment of [Page 208] the female sex. The following table, formed from the census of [...] United States, in which the males and females are numbered [...] [...] ­ent columns, furnishes a new proof of the truth of the com [...] [...] ­ion, as it respects the United States. ^*

It is remarkable that the excess in all the states is on the [...] males, except in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut [...] these states the females are considerably the most numerous. T [...] [...] ­ference is obviously to be ascribed to the large migrations from [...] states, to Vermont, the northern and western parts of New York [...] Territory N. W. of Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and some [...] most all the southern states. A great proportion of these [...] were males▪ and while they have served to increase the propor [...] of males, in the states where they have settled, as is strikingly [...] case in Vermont and Kentucky, to which the migrations have [...] most numerous, and where the males are to the females nearly [...] to nine, they have served to lessen the proportion of males in the [...] from whence they emigrated.

The number of Slaves, in 1790, in all the states, was 697, 69 [...] [...] increase of this number since, owing to salutary laws, in [...] of [...] states, and the humane exertions which have been made in [...] [...] their emancipation, has happily been small, and probably [...] [...] less in future.

CHARACTER AND MANNERS.] Federal Americans, collec [...] to­gether from various countries, of different habits, formed [...] [Page 209] different governments, have yet to form their national character, or we may [...]ther say, it is in a forming state. They have not yet existed as [...] nation long enough for us to form an idea of what will be, in its maturity, its prominent features. Judging, however, from its pre­sent promising infancy, we are encouraged to hope, that, at some fu­ture period, not far distant, it will, in every point of view, be respect­able.

Until the revolution which was accomplished in 1783, Europeans were strangely ignorant of America and its inhabitants. They concluded that the New World must be inferior to the old. The count de Buffon sup­posed that the animals in this country were uniformly less than in Europe, and thence concluded, that, "on this side the Atlantic there is a ten­dency in nature to belittle her production." The Abbe Raynal, in a [...] edition of his works supposed this belittling tendency or influ­ence had its effect on the race of whites transplanted from Europe, and thence had the presumption to assert, that "America had not yet produced one good poet, one able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or science." Had the Abbe been justly informed respect­ing Americans, we presume he would not have made an assertion so [...], and injurious to their genius and literary character. This assertion drew from Mr. Jefferson the following reply.

"When we shall have existed as a people as long as the Greeks did before they produced a Homer, the Romans a Virgil, the French a Racine and Voltaire, the English a Shakespear and Milton, should this [...] be still true, we will enquire from what unfriendly causes it [...] proceeded, that the other countries of Europe and quarters of the [...] shall not have inscribed any name in the roll of poets. In war [...] have produced a WASHINGTON, whose memory will be adored while liberty shall have votaries, whose name will triumph over time, and will in future ages assume its just station among the most celebrated [...] of the world, when that wretched philosophy shall be for­ [...], which would arrange him among the degeneracies of nature. [...] [...] we have produced a FRANKLIN, than whom no one of the present age has made more important discoveries, nor has en­riched philosophy with more, or more ingenious solutions of the [...] of nature. We have supposed Mr. RITTENHOUSE sec­ [...] no astronomer living: that in genius he must be the first, be­cause he is self-taught. As an artist, he has exhibited as great [...] of mechanical genius as the world has ever produced.—He has not indeed made a world; but he has, by imitation, ap­proached nearer its Maker than any man who has lived from [...] creation to this day. As in philosophy and war, so in govern­ment, in oratory, in painting, in the plastic art, we might shew that America, though but a child of yesterday, has already given hope­ful [...] of genius, as well of the nobler kinds, which arouse [...] most feelings of man, which call him into action, which sub­ [...] [...] his freedom, and conduct him to happiness, as of the subor­ [...] which serve to amuse him only. We therefore suppose, that [...] [...] is as unjust as it is unkind; and that, of the geniuses [...] [...] the present age, America contributes its full share. For [...] it with those countries, where genius is most cultivated, [...] the most excellent models for art, and scaffoldings for the [...] of science, as France and England for instance, we calcu­ [...] [...]. The United States contain three millions of inhabitants; [Page 210] France twenty millions; and the British islands ten. We produc [...] Washington, a Franklin, a Rittenhouse. France then should [...] half a dozen in each of these lines, and Great Britain half that num­ber, equally eminent. It may be true, that France has; we are [...] just becoming acquainted with her, and our acquaintance so far [...] us high ideas of the genius of her inhabitants. It would be [...] too many of them to name particularly a Voltaire, a Buffon, the [...] ­ [...]tellation of Encyclopedists, the Abbe Raynal himself, &c. [...] We therefore have reason to believe she can produce her full [...] genius."

The two late important revolutions in America, which have [...] scarcely exceeded since the memory of man, I mean that of the dec­laration and establishment of independence, and that of the ado [...] of a new form of government without bloodshed, have called [...] historic fame many noble and distinguished characters who [...] otherwise have slept in oblivion.

But while we exhibit the fair side of the character of Federal Amer­icans, we would not be thought blind to their faults.

An European writer has justly observed, that "If there be an [...] ­ject truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing re [...] ­lutions of independency with one hand, and with the other brandish­ing a whip over his affrighted slaves."

Much has been written, to shew the injustice and iniquity of [...] slaving the Africans; so much as to render is unnecessary here to [...] any thing on that part of the subject. We cannot, however, [...] introducing a few observations respecting the influence of slavery up­on policy, morals and manners. From calculations on the subject, i [...] has been found, that the expense of maintaining a slave, especially [...] the purchase money be included, is much greater than that of [...] ­taining a free man: This however is disputed by some; but sup­pose the expense in both cases be equal, it is certain that the labour [...] the free man, influenced by the powerful motive of gain, is, at [...] twice as profitable to the employer as that of the slave. Besides, [...] ­ry is the bane of industry. It renders labour, among the wh [...] not only unfashionable, but disreputable. Industry is the offs [...] of necessity rather than of choice. Slavery precludes this necess [...] and indolence, which strikes at the root of all social and [...] happiness, is the unhappy consequence. These observations, [...] adding any thing upon the injustice of the practice, shew that [...] is impolitic.

Its influence on manners and morals is equally pernicious. [...] negro wenches, in many instances, are nurses to their mistresses' chil­dren. The infant babe, as soon as it is born, is delivered to its [...] nurse, and perhaps seldom or never tastes a drop of its mother's [...]. The children, by being brought up, and constantly associating with [...] negroes, too often imbibe their low ideas, and vitiated man [...] morals; and contract a negroish kind of accent and dia [...]ect, wh [...] they often carry with them through life.

To these I shall add the observations of a native ^* of a state [...] contains a greater number of slaves than any of the others. [...] his observations upon the influence of slavery were inte [...] particular state, they will apply equally well to all places [...] pernicious practice in any considerable degree prevails.

[Page 211] "There must doubtless" he observes "be an unhappy influence on the ma [...]ers of our people, produced by the existence of slavery a­mong us. The whole commerce between master and slave is a per­petual exercise of the most boisterous passions, the most unremitting despotism on the one part, and degrading submissions on the other. Our children see this, and learn to imitate it; for man is an imitative [...]. This quality is the germ of all education in him. From his [...]dle to his grave, he is learning to do what he sees others do▪ If a [...] could find no motive either in his philanthropy or his self-love▪ for restraining the intemperance of passion towards his slave, it should always be a sufficient one that his child is present. But generally it is not sufficient. The parent storms, the child looks on, catches the lin­ [...]ments of wrath, puts on the same ai [...]s in the circle of smaller slaves, giv [...] a loose to his worst of passions, and thus nursed, educated, and daily exercised in tyranny, cannot but be stamped by it with odious peculiarities. The man must be a prodigy who can retain his manners and morals undepraved by such circumstances. And with what exe­ [...]tion should the statesman be loaded, who permitting one half of the citizens thus to trample on the rights of the other, transforms those [...] despots, and these into enemies; destroys the morals of the one part, and the [...]or patrioe of the other. For if a slave can have a coun­try in this world, it must be any other in preference to that in which he is born to live and labour for another: in which he must lo [...]k up the faculties of his nature, contribute as far as depends on his indi­vidual endeavours to the evanishment of the human race, or entail his own miserable condition on the endless generations proceeding from him. With the morals of the people, their industry also is destroyed. For in a warm climate, no man will labour for himself who can make another labour for him. This is so true, that of the proprietors of [...] a very small proportion indeed are ever seen to labour. And [...] the liberties of a nation be thought secure when we have remov­ed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are the gift of God? That they are not to be violated but with his wrath? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just: that his justice cannot sleep forever: that consider­ing [...]bers, nature and natural means only, a revolution of the wheel of fortune, an exchange of situation, is among possible events: that it may become probable by supernatural interference!—The Almighty ha [...] [...]o attribute which can take side with us in such a contest. But it is impossible to be temperate and to pursue this subject through the various considerations of policy; of morals, of history, natural and [...] ▪ We must be contented to hope they will force their way into [...] one's mind. I think a change already perceptible, since the [...] of the present revolution. The spirit of the master is abating, [...] of the slave rising from the dust, his condition mollifying, the [...] [...]pe preparing, under the auspices of heaven, for a total eman­ [...]; and that this is disposed, in the order of events, to be with the consent of their masters, rather than by their extirpation."

Under the Federal government, from the measures already [...] we have reason to believe that all slaves in the United [...] will in time be emancipated, in a manner most consist­ent with their own happiness, and the true interest of their pro­ [...]. Whether this will be effected by transporting them back [...] [...]; or by colonizing them in some part of our own territory [Page 212] and extending to them our alliance and protection, until they shall have acquired strength sufficient for their own defence; or by incorpora­tion with the whites; or in some other way, remains to be determined.

In the middle and northern states, there are comparatively but [...] slaves; and of course there is less difficulty in giving them their free­dom. In Massachusetts alone, and we mention it to their distinguish­ed honour, there are NONE. Societies for the manumission of slaves, have been instituted in Philadelphia and New York, and other places, and laws have been enacted, and other measures taken in the New England states, to accomplish the same purpose. The FRIENDS, (commonly called Quakers) have evinced the propriety of their name, by their goodness in originating, and their vigorous exertions in exe­cuting this truly humane and benevolent design.

The English Language is universally spoken in the United States, and in it business is transacted, and the records are kept. It is sp [...]k­en with great purity, and pronounced with propriety in New-Eng­land, by persons of education; and, excepting some corruptions in pronunciation, by all ranks of people. In the middle and southern states, where they have had a great [...]uflux of foreigners, the language, in many instances, is corrupted, especially in pronunciation. Attempts are making to introduce a uniformity of pronunciation throughout the states, which for political, as well as other reasons, it is hoped will meet the approbation and encouragement of all literary and influ­ential characters.

Intermingled with the Americans, are the Dutch, Scotch, Irish, French, Germans, Swedes and Jews; all these, except the Scotch and Irish, retain, in a greater or less degree, their native lan­guage, in which they perform their public worship, converse [...] transact their business with each other.

The time, however, is anticipated, when all improper distinctions shall be abolished; and when the language, manners, customs, political and religious sentiments of the mixed mass of people who inhabit the United States, shall have become so assimilated, as that all nominal distinctions shall be lost in the general and honourable name of AMERICANS.

GOVERNMENT.] Until the fourth of July, 1776, the present United States were British colonies. On that memorable day, the Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assem­bled, made a solemn declaration, in which they assigned their reasons for withdrawing their allegiance from the King of Great Britain. Appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of their intentions, they did, in the name and by the authority of the good people of the colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies were, and of right ought to be, FREE and INDEPEN­DENT States; that they were absolved from all allegiance to the Brit­ish crown, and that all political connection between them and Great Britain was, and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they had full power to levy war, conclude [...] contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and thing [...] which Independent States may of right do. For the support of th [...] declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine p [...]i­dence, the delegates then in Congress, fifty-five in number, [...] pledged to each other their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred [...].

At the same time they published articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union between the states, in which they took the [...].

[Page 213] "THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA," and agreed, that each state should retain its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction and right not expressly delegated to Congress by the confederation. By these articles, the thirteen United States seve­rally entered into a firm league of friendship with each other for their common defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, and bound themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks that might be made upon all, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, commerce or any other pre­tence whatever. But for the more convenient management of the general interests of the United States, it was determined, that Dele­gates should be annually appointed, in such manner as the Legislature of each state should direct, to meet in Congress the first Monday in November of every year, with a power reserved to each state to re­call its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year. No state was to be represented in Congress by less than two, or more than sev­en members; and no person could be a delegate for more than three years, in any term of six years, nor was any person, being a delegate, capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or any other for his benefit, should receive any salary, fees or emolu­ment of any kind. In determining questions in Congress, each state was to have one vote. Every state was bound to abide by the deter­minations of Congress in all questions which were submitted to them by the confederation. The articles of confederation were to be in­variably observed by every state, and the Union to be perpetual; nor was any alteration at any time hereafter to be made in any of the articles, unless such alterations be agreed to in Congress, and be after­wards confirmed by the legislatures of every state. The articles of confederation were ratified by Congress, July 9th, 1778.

These articles of confederation, being found inadequate to the purposes of a federal government, for reasons hereafter men­tioned, delegates were chosen in each of the United States, to meet and fix upon the necessary amendments. They accordingly met in convention at Philadelphia, in the summer of 1787, and agreed to propose the following constitution for the consideration of their con­stituents.

The following states have ratified all the foregoing articles of a­mendment to the constitution of the United States, viz. Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, New York, Virginia and Ver [...], New Hampshire, New Jersey and Pennsylvania reject the second arti­cle; and Delaware rejects the first article. No official returns, to our knowledge, have been made from the other States.

SOCIETY OF THE CINCINNATI. This Society was instituted im­mediately on the close of the war in 1783. At their first general [Page 225] [...] Philadelphia, in May 1784, they altered and a [...]ended the original In­stitution, and reduced it to its present form. They denominated them­selves " The Society of the Cincinnati," from the high veneration they possessed for the character of that illustrious Roman, Lucius Quintius Cin [...]alus.

The persons who constitute this society, are all the commissioned and brevet officers of the army and navy of the United States, who served three years, and who left the service with reputation; all offi­cers who were in actual service at the conclusion of the war; all the principal staff officers of the continental army; and the officers who have been deranged by the several resolutions of Congress, upon the different reforms of the army.

There are also admitted into this society, the late and present min­isters of his most Christian majesty to the United States; all the gen­erals and colonels of regiments, and legions of the land forces; all the admirals and captains of the navy, ranking as colonels, who have co-operated with the armies of the United States in their exertions for liberty; and such other persons as have been admitted by the res­pective state meetings.

The motives which originally induced the officers of the Ameri­can army to form themselves into a society of friends, are sum­m [...]d up in a masterly manner, in their circular letter. "Having▪" says they, "lived in the strictest habits of amity through the various [...] of a war, unparalleled in many of its circumstances; having seen [...] objects for which we have contended, happily attained; in the mo­ment of triumph and separation, when we were about to act the la [...] pleasing, melancholy scene in our military drama-pleasing, because we [...] to leave our country possessed of independence and pence—melancholy, because we were to part, perhaps never to meet again; while every breast was penetrated with feelings which can be more easily conceived than described; while every little act of tenderness recurred fresh to the recollection, it was impossible not to wish our friendships should be continued; it was extremely natural to desire they might be perpetuated by our posterity to the remotest ages. With these impressions, and with such sentiments, we candidly confess we signed the institution.—We know our motives were irreproachable."

They rest their institution upon the two great pillars of FRIEND­SHIP and CHARITY. Their benevolent intentions are, to diffuse [...] and support to any of their unfortunate companions who have seen better days, and have merited a milder fate; to wipe the tear from the eye of the widow, who must have been consigned, with her helpless infants, to indigence and wretchedness, but for this charitable institution; to succour the fatherless; to rescue the female orphan from destruction; and to enable the son to emulate the virtues of the father▪ 'let us then,' they conclude, 'prosecute with ardor what we have insti­tuted in sincerity; let Heaven and our own consciences approve our [...]; let our actions be our best comment on our words; and let us [...] a lesson to posterity, THAT THE GLORY OF SOLDIERS CAN­ [...] [...] COMPLETED, WITHOUT ACTING WELL THE PART O [...] CITI­ZENS.'

The society have an order, (viz) A Bald Eagle of gold, bearing on its breast the emblems described as follows—

The Principal figure is CINCINNATUS: three senators presenting [Page 226] him with a sword and other military ensigns: On a field in the [...] ground, his wife standing at the door of their cottage; near it a [...] and other instruments of husbandry. Round the whole, [...] [...] servare rempubli [...]m. On the reverse, the sun rising, a city with [...] gates, and vessels entering the port; same crowning Cincinn [...]tus [...] wreath, inscribed, virtutis proemium. Below, hands joining, suppor [...] a heart; with the motto, esto perpetua. Round the whole, foci [...]s [...] cinnatorum, instituta, A. D. 1783.

AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. The three important object [...] attention in the United States, [...] agriculture, commerce and manufactures. The richness of the [...] which amply rewards the industrious husbandman; the temper [...] [...] of the climate, which admits of steady labour; the cheapness of [...] which tempts the foreigner from his native home, lead us to fix on ag­riculture as the present great leading interest of this country. T [...] furnishes outward cargoes not only for all our own ships, but for [...] also which foreign nations send to our ports; or in other [...] pays for all our importations; it supplies a great part of the [...] of the inhabitants, and food for them and their cattle. What i [...] [...] ­sumed at home including the materials for manufacturing, is four or five times the value of what is exported.

The number of people employed in agriculture, is at least [...] parts in four of the inhabitants of the United States; some say [...]. It follows of course that they form the body of the militia, who [...] the bulwark of the nation. The value of the property occupied by agriculture, is many times greater than the property employed in [...] ­ery other way. The settlement of waste lands, the subdivision of form, and the numerous improvements in husbandry, annually increase [...] preeminence of the agricultural interest. The resources we derive [...] it, are at all times certain and indispensibly necessary. Besides, the [...] life promotes health, by its active nature; and morality, by [...] people from the luxuries and vices of the populous towns. In [...] agriculture is the spring of our commerce, and the parent of our man­ufactures.

The vast extent of sea coast, which spreads before these [...] ­ated states; the number of excellent harbours and sea-port [...] the numerous creeks and immense bays, which indent the [...] and the rivers, lakes and canals▪ which peninsulate the whole coun­try; added to its agricultural advantages and improvements, give this part of the world superior advantages for trade. Our commerce, [...] ­cluding our exports, imports, shipping, manufactures and fisher [...] may properly be considered as forming one interest. This has been con­sidered as the great object, and the most important interest of the New England States.

Since commerce has ever been considered as the handmaid of agri­culture, particularly in this country, where the agricultural interest [...] greatly predominates; and since neither can flourish without the [...] policy and interest point out the necessity of such a system of [...] and agricultural regulations, as will originate and effectually pre [...] a proper connection and balance between them.

The consumption of fish oil, whale-bone and other articles, ob [...] ­ed through the fisheries, in the towns and counties that are con [...] ­ient [Page 227] for navigation, has become much greater than is generally, sup­posed. It is computed that no less than five thousand barrels of mackarel, salmon and pickled codfish are vended annually in the city of Philadelphia: Add to them the dried fish, oil, sperma­c [...]ti candles, whale-bone, &c. and it will be found that a little fleet of sloops and schooners are employed in the business.

The demand for the forementioned articles is proportionably great in other parts of the union, (especially in Boston and the large commer­cial towns that lie along the coast northeast ward, which enter largely in­to the fishing trade) and the vessels employed in transporting them pro­ [...]bly numerous. The increase of our towns and manufactures will in­c [...] the demand for these articles, and of course the number of coasting vessels. In the present state of our navigation, we can be in no [...] of procuring these supplies by means of our own vessels. This [...] afford encouragement to the business of ship-building, and in­crease the number of our seamen, who must hereafter form an impor­tant part of the defence of our country. Add to these, our prospects from the fur trade of Canada. The vast settlements which are mak­ing at pittsburg, Genesse and in other parts in the neighbourhood of Canada; the advantages of our inland navigation, by means of the lakes, the northern branches of the Ohio, the Patomak, the Susque­hannah and the Hudson, with many other circumstances, depending not only on the situation, but likewise on the climate, proximity, &c. [...] in a few years put a large share of this fur trade into our hands, and procure us at least, our proportionable share of the large profits thence arising, which Canada, since the year 1763, has enjoyed almost exclusively. These advantages, however, are still but in prospect; and must [...]tain so un [...] the British, agreeably to treaty, shall have evacu­ated the [...]orts at Niagara, the large settlements of the Heights, and that of Mi [...]i [...]imakinak. Although the British, by the treaty of peace, are to enjoy with us the portages of the navigation of the lakes, yet should a dispute arise, it will not be convenient for them to contend with us; for the northern and north eastern parts of the continent, included in the British limits, are much colder, more mountainous and poorer than the United States, and have no rivers, but such as are full of rapids and falls; consequently, this trade cannot be carried on by the Canadians with the sa [...] facility nor advantage as by us. Still they will have left the exclu­sive right to the communication from Montreal, with the High-lands, through the large river of the Ottawas, which flows into the river St. Lawrence at the lake of the Two Mountains, nine miles from that city; but its rapids, and falls, will render this way, if not impracticable, at [...] always very expensive and precarious.

The quantity of fur exported from the northern parts of America to Great Britain, have amounted yearly to about forty one thousand pounds s [...]erling, estimated from the freight during the years 1768, 1769 and 1770. The exports of buck-skins amounted to upwards of thirty three thousand pounds. The sales of fur, which take place in London [...] spring, produced in 1782, four thousand seven hundred pounds. It was a little increased in 1783, and in 1784; it exceeded two hundred and forty five thousand pounds. All this fur is paid for by English manufacturers; and a fourth part of it is worked in England, where its [...] is doubled. This valuable trade, which is carried on through Quebec, will a great part of it fall into our hands, as soon as the forti­fications, [Page 228] which the British possess in our northern territories, shall be restored to us. To this consideration, rather than to the pretended [...] passion for the Royalists, may be attributed the delay of that r [...] ­tion. The period when this restitution must be made, the British [...] ­ticipate with sorrow. Such are some of the commercial resources and prospects of this country.

But for various reasons, the advantages for trade which [...] [...] so liberally given us, have never till since the establishment of [...] present government, been properly improved. Before the revolution [...] Great Britain claimed an exclusive right to the trade of her Ameri­can colonies. This right, which she inflexibly maintained, [...] her to fix her own price, as well on the articles which she purchased from us, as upon those of her own manufactures exported for [...] consumption. The carrying trade too, was preserved almost [...] ­sively in her own hands, which afforded a temptation to the car­riers, that was often too powerful to be withstood, to exact [...] ­tant commissions and freights. Although we will not even ha [...]d▪ conjecture how much Great Britain enriched herself by this ex [...] trade with her colonies, yet this we may say, that by denying us [...] privilege of carrying our produce to foreign markets, she deprived us of the opportunity of realizing, in their full extent, the advantage for trade which nature has given us.

The late war, which brought about our separation from [...] Britain, threw our commercial affairs into great confusion. The p [...] ­ers of the old confederation were unequal to the complete execution of any measures, calculated effectually to recover them from their [...] ranged situation. Through want of power in the old Congress [...] [...] ­lect a revenue for the discharge of our foreign and domestic debt, [...] credit was destroyed, and trade of consequence greatly embarrassed, Each state, in her desultory regulations of trade, regarded her own in­terest, while that of the union was neglected. And so different [...] the interests of the several states, that their laws respecting trade, [...] clashed with each other, and were productive of unhappy conse­quences. The large commercial states had it in their power to [...] ­press their neighbours; and in some instances this power was [...] or indirectly exercised. These impolitic and unjustifiable regulations formed on the impression of the moment, and proceeding from [...] [...] form or permanent principles, excited unhappy jealousies [...] the clashing states, and occasioned frequent stagnations in th [...]ly [...] and in some instances, a secrecy in their commercial policy. [...] [...] wise measures which have been adopted by Congress, under [...] ­sent efficient government, have extricated us almost entirely [...] these embarrassments, and put a new and pleasing face upon our pub­lick affairs. Invested with the adequate powers, Congress [...] formed a system of commercial regulations, which enable [...] meet the opposers of our trade upon their own ground; a [...] which has placed our commerce on a respectable, uniform and [...] ­ligible footing, adapted to promote the general interests of the [...] with the smallest injury to the individual states.

The following tables, taken from authenticated copies, will give the best idea of the present state of commerce in the United States.

[Page 229]

TREASURY DEPARTMENT, Register's Office, March 15 th, 1792.

JOSEPH NOURSE, Register.

[Page 230]

[Page 231]

[Page 232]

TREASURY DEPARTMENT, Register's Office, March 9 th, 1792.

JOSEPH NOURSE, Register.

[Page 233] ABSTRACT of GOODS, WARES and MERCHANDIZE, ex­ported from the United States, from the 1st October 1790, to the 30th September 1791.

(A.) Returns for two quarters from Charleston, and from several small ports, are deficient.

[Page 239]

TREASURY DEPARTMENT, March 28th, 1792.

TENCH COXE, Assist. Sec'ry.

The foregoing tables will serve to give the reader an accurate view of the state of our commerce with foreign nations; of the articles, and the quantity exported of each, and of the amount of duties arising from our imports and tonnage.

In this connection it may be useful to notice the principal restrict­ions, impositions and prohibitions sustained by the United States, in their trade with the British Dominions, in contrast with those sustain­ed by Great Britain in her trade with the United States; and this is the more necessary, as there are not wanting persons who affirm, that the balance of favour is given to the United States, and that Great Britain is so far injured by our deportment, as to justify a retaliation.

The principal facts, relative to the question of reciprocity of com­mercial regulations, between Great Britain and the United States of America, have, by a gentleman who had access to every necessary in­formation for the purpose, been thrown into the form of a table, as follows.

Besides, there is no country that contributes so much to the support of the navy of Great Britain, as the United States, by the employment they give to her ships. From August 1789, to August 1790, no less than 230,000 tons of British vessels, cleared from these states; which much exceed the quantity of vessels they employed the same year in the Russian trade. The whole Baltic trade of Great Britain, with all the countries of the various powers that lie within the Sound, impor­tant as it is to her, does not fill more. Their trade with Holland, France, Spain and Portugal, does not altogether employ as many ves­sels. Their whole fisheries, American colonial trade, and West India trade, do not employ and load more. And how, it may be asked, are the United States requited for thus strengthning the acknowledged bulwark of Great Britain, by annually giving a complete lading to the unequalled quantity of 230,000 tons of her private vessels? The whole of the American vessels, which have arrived in our ports in the same year, from all the countries and places subject to the British crown, amount to no more than 43,580 tons.

[Page 242] Our allies and friends, the French, have been more liberal in their policy. In the arret, passed in council December 29, 1787, for en­couraging the commerce of France with the United States of America, it is ordained. That whale oil and spermaceti, the produce of the fish­eries of the United States, brought directly into France in French or American bottoms, shall be subject to a duty only of seven livres ten sols (equal to six shillings and three pence sterling) the barrel of five hundred and twenty weight; and whale fins shall be subject to a duty of only six livres thirteen sols and four deniers (equal to five shillings and six pence half penny) the quintal, with ten sols per livre on each of the said duties; which ten sols per livre was to cease on the last day of December 1790.

The other fish oils and dry salted fish, produced and imported as a­foresaid, are not liable to pay any other or greater duties, than the most favoured nations are, or shall be subject to in the same case.

Corn, wheat, rye, rice, peas, beans, lentils, flax-seed and other seeds, flour, trees and shrubs, pot and pearl ashes, skins, and fur of beaver, raw hides, furs and peltry, and timber carried from the United States to France in French or American bottoms, are subject to a duty of one eighth per cent. on their value. Vessels, proved to have been built in the United States, and sold in France, or purchased by Frenchmen, are ex­empted from duties. Turpentine, tar and pitch, are liable to a duty of two and a half per cent. on their value. Arms may be imported into the United States, in French or American vessels, on paying a duty of one eighth per cent. on their value; and gunpowder duty free, by giving a cautionary bond. Books and papers of all sorts imported as aforesaid, are to be exempted from all duties, and entitled to a resti­tution of the fabrication duties on paper and paste board. Permis­sion is given to store all productions and merchandize of the United States, for six months, in all the ports of France open to the commerce of her colonies, subject to a duty only of one eighth per cent. His majesty reserves to himself the power of granting encouragement to favour the exportation of arms, hard ware, jewelry, bonetry, wool, cot­ton, coarse woollens, small draperies and stuffs of cotton of all sorts, and other merchandize of fabric, which may be sent to the United States.

As to other merchandizes not enumerated in this act, imported and exported in French or American vessels, and with respect to all com­mercial conventions whatever, his majesty ordains, 'That the citizens of the United States enjoy in France, the same rights, privileges and exemptions, with the subjects of his majesty; saving what is provided in the ninth article hereof. ^*

'His majesty grants to the citizens and inhabitants of the United States all the advantages which are enjoyed, or which may be hereafter enjoyed by the most favoured nations in his colonies of America: and moreover his majesty ensures to the said citizens and inhabitants [Page 243] of the United States, all the privileges and advantages which his own subjects of France enjoy or shall enjoy in Asia, and in the seas leading thereto, provided always, that their vessels shall have been fitted out and dispatched in some port of the United States.'

MANUFACTURES.] We now come to the subject of our Manufactures; a subject which has lately become in a high degree interesting to the in­habitants of the United States, but which is too copious to be treated at large in a work in this kind. ^* I shall confine what I have to say, in this place, on this article, to a few general observations on the advantages of encouraging manufactures in the United States; and to an enumeration of the articles already manufactured among us, and a specification of those branches which merit or require to be particularly encouraged.

The prevailing disposition among the European nations, and partic­ularly Great Britain, to restrict and embarrass the external trade of the United States, have forced them to serious and salutary reflections on the importance and necessity of enlarging the sphere of their do­mestic commerce, and creating a more extensive demand at home, for the increasing surplus of their agricultural produce, by adopting mea­sures for encreasing the variety and quantity of their manufactures, and consequently the number of manufactures. This circumstances, and the complete success which has rewarded manufacturing enterprize, in some valuable branches, and the promising prospects which attend some less mature essays, have put the matter of expediency of encour­aging manufactures in the United States, which was not along since deemed very questionable, beyond a doubt; and they also justify the belief, that the obstacles to the increase of this species of employment among us, are less formidable than have been generally imagined. That manufacturing establishments would, in a variety of respects, be advan­tagous to these states, appears very evident from the following circum­stances.

1. They would occasion a proper division of labour, than which there is scarcely any thing of greater moment in the economy of a na­tion. The separation of occupations, causes each to be carried to much greater perfection than it could possibly acquire, if they were blended; because there would be a saving of time, by avoiding that loss of it, which is occasioned by a frequent change from one operation to ano­ther of a different nature; and because from a constant and undivided application to a single object, there naturally results a greater skill and dexterity in accomplishing it.

2. Manufacturing establishments would be a means of extending the use of machinery; which, as it is an artificial aid to man, and, to all the purposes of labour, an increase of hands and of strength, without the expense of maintaining the labourer, is of great importance in the gen­eral mass of national industry. The cotton mill, invented in England within the last 20 years, is a signal illustration of this general idea. In consequence of it, all the different processes for spinning cotton are [Page 244] performed by means of machines, which are put in motion by water, and attended chiefly by women and children; and by a smaller number of persons, in the whole, than are requisite in the ordinary mode of spinning. And the operations of this mill may be continued night and day with convenience and advantage. It is easy to conceive the prodigious effect of such a machine. To this invention is to be attri­buted, essentially, the immense progress, which has been so suddenly made in Great Britain, in the various fabrics of cotton. The value of labour saving machines, has, in some degree, been known and experi­enced already among us; and by their general adoption in their most improved state, to the cotton, flaxen, hempen, metal, and part of the woollen and silken branches, to all of which raw materials they apply, the United States might, in a vory few years, acquire a desirable degree of independency on British and other foreign manufactures. And as to advantageous situations, for the erection of miles, and for the estab­lishment of manufactures in general, no country has more, and few so many as the United States: And we are far from being deficient in ingenious mechanics who are capable, not only of erecting machines already invented, and making improvements upon them, but also of inventing new machines of the most complicated and useful kind.

3. Another advantage resulting from manufacturing establishments is, they would afford employment to classes of people who are ei­ther not fully occupied, or wholly idle, and thereby give occasion to the exertion of a greater quantity of industry, even by the same number of persons. In general, women and children are rendered more useful, and the latter more early useful, by manufacturing establishments, than they would otherwise be. Of the number employed in the cotton manufactories of Great Britain, it is computed that 4 in 7, nearly, are women and children; of whom the greatest proportion are children; and many of them of a tender age.

4. The establishment of manufactures would greatly increase the inducements which this country, in its present state, holds out to for­eigners to come among us, and become citizens. The oppression that is experienced by the people in some parts of Europe, and the dis­tresses that multitudes are brought into, by the disturbed state of so many kingdoms, have excited a disposition in many of their valuable citizens, to emigrate to a country where they may enjoy freedom and peace. The effect of multiplying the opportunities of employment to those who emigrate, by manufactural establishments, would probably be, an increase of the number and extent of valuable acquisitions to the population, arts and industry of the country. This sentiment, however, ought to be known, that while we think ourselves justifiable, as it respects the cause of humanity, religion and policy, in benefiting our country, by opening an asylum, for the oppressed and distressed citizens of Europe, we are very far from finding a plea­sure in those affecting calamities which render a removal, on their part, desirable.

European manufacturers, listening to the powerful invitations of a better price for their fabrics or their labour—of greater cheapness of provisions and raw materials—of an exemption from the chief part of the taxes, burdens and restraints which they endure in the Old World—of freedom from those distresses and embarrassments into which they have been thrown by the disturbances of Europe—of greater personal independence and consequence, under the operations of a [Page 245] more equal government—and of what is far more precious than more religious toleration, a perfect equality of religious privileges—encouraged. I say, by all these powerful inducements, manufactures would probably stock from Europe to America to pursue their respective occupations, if they were once made sensible of the advantages they would enjoy, and were inspired with an assurance of encouragement and employment.

Besides the advantages already enumerated, which would result to these States from the encouragement of manufactures, we may add, that in this way, greater scope would be afforded for the exercise of the various talents and dispositions of men, a more ample field opened for enterprise; which circumstances are the more important, as there seems evidently to be, in the genius of the people of this coun­try, a remarkable aptitude for mechanical inventions and improve­ments, and a singular spirit of enterprise. The increase of manufac­tures, also, would be a mean of creating, in some instances a new, and securing in all, a more certain and steady demand, for the surplus pro­duce of the soil. This circumstance, as it is a principal mean, by which the establishment of manufactures contributes to an augmenta­tion of the produce or revenue of a country, and has an immediate and direct relation to the prosperity of agriculture, is among the most im­portant advantages enumerated.

But there are other considerations which serve to fortify the idea that the encouragement of manufactures is the interest of all parts of the union. If the northern and middle states should be the principal scenes of such establishments, they would immediately benefit the more southern, by creating a demand for productions, some of which they have in common with the other states, and others of which either are peculiar to them, or more abundant, or of better quality than else­where. These productions principally are, timber, flax, hemp, cot­ton, wool, raw silk, indigo, iron, lead, furs, hides, skins and coals; of these articles; cotton and indigo are peculiar to the southern states; flax and hemp are, or may be raised in greater abundance there than in the more northern states; and the wool of Virginia is said to be of a better quality, than that of any other state; which is probable, as Virginia embraces the same latitudes of the finest wool countries in Europe. The climate of the south is also better adapted to the pro­duction of silk. The extensive cultivation of cotton can hardly be ex­pected, but from the previous establishment of domestic manufactories of the article; and the surest encouragement and vent for the others, would result from similar establishments in regard to them.

The most material objection that has been made to the pursuit of manufactures in the United States, is the impracticability of success, arising from scarcity of hands, dearness of labour, and want of capi­tal. The last of these circumstances, want of capital, has no real found­ation. With regard to the scarcity of hands, the fact must be applied, with no small qualification, to certain parts of the United States. There are large districts which may be considered as pretty fully peo­pled; and which, notwithstanding a continual drain for distant set­tlements, are thickly interspersed with flourishing and increasing towns.—Connecticut and Massachusetts contain, on an average as many as 55 inhabitants to every square mile; and the country of Essex, in Massachusetts, will average 1 [...]5 inhabitants to every square mile. This latter district has already reached the point at which the com­plaint [Page 246] of scarcity of hands ceases; and the abovementioned states at large, are not far remote from, and are approaching fast towards it; And having, perhaps, fewer attractions to agriculture than some other more southern and temperate parts of the union, they exhibit a pro­portionably stronger propensity to the pursuit of manufactures, which is exemplified in the maturity which some branches have already attained, in these districts.

But there are circumstances, which have been already noticed with another view, that materially diminish every where the effect of a scarci­ty of hands. These circumstances are, the great use which may be made of women and children—the vast extension given, by late improve­ments, to the employment of machines, which, substituting the agency of fire and water, has prodigiously lessened the necessity for manual labour—and lastly, the attraction of foreign emigrants. In all our populous towns there is already a large proportion of ingenious and valuable workmen, in different arts and trades, who, by expatiating from Europe, have improved their own condition, and added to the industry and wealth of the United States. It is a natural inference, from the experience we have already had, that as soon as the United States shall present the countenance of a serious prosecution of man­ufactures—as soon as foreign artists shall be made sensible that the state of things here, affords a moral certainly of employment and encourage­ment, competent numbers of European workmen will transplant them­selves, so as effectually to ensure the success of the design. These circumstances sufficiently obviate the objection which arises from a scarcity of hands.

But, to all the arguments which are brought to evince the impract­icability of success, in manufacturing establishments in the United States, it would be a sufficient answer, to refer to the experience of what has been already done. It is certain that several important branches have grown up and flourished, with a rapidity which surpris­es; affording an encouraging assurance of success in future attempts. Of these the following are the most considerable, viz. Of skins—Tan­ned and tawed leathers, dressed skins, shoes, boots and slippers, har­ness and saddlery of all kinds, portmanteaus and trunks, leather breech­es, gloves, muffs and tippets, parchment and glue.—Of Iron—Bar and sheet iron, steel, nail rods and nails, implements of husbandry, stoves, pots and other household utensils, the steel and iron work of carriages and for ship building, anchors, scale beams and weights, and various tools of artificers, arms of different kinds.—Of Wood—Ships, cabinet wares, and turnery, wool and cotton cards, and other machinery for manufactures and husbandry, mathematical instruments, coopers wares of every kind.—Of Flax and Hemp—Cables, sail cloth, cordage, twine and packthread.—Of Clay—Bricks and coarse tiles, and potters wares.—Ardent spirits and malt liquors.—Writing and printing paper, sheath­ing and wrapping paper, paste boards, fullers or press papers, and pa­per hangings.—Hats of fur and wool, and mixtures of both.—Wo­mens stuff and silk shoes.—Refined sugars.—Chocolate.—Oil of ani­mals and seeds, soap, spermaceti and tallow candles—Copper and brass wares, particularly utensils for distillers, sugar refiners and brewers, andirons and other articles for household use—clocks, philosophical ap­paratus—Tin wares of almost all kinds for ordinary use—Carriages of all kinds—Snuff, chewing and smoaking tobacco—Starch and hair powder—Lampblack and other painters colours—Gunpowder.

[Page 247] Besides the manufacture of these articles, which are carried on as regular trades, and have attained to a considerable degree of maturity, there is a vast scene of household manufacturing, which contributes very largely to the supply of the community. These domestic man­ufactures are prosecuted as well in the southern, as in the middle and northern states; great quantities of coarse cloths, coatings, serges and flannels, linsey woolseys, hosiery of wool, cotton and thread, coarse fustians, jeans and muslins, checked and striped cotton and linen goods, bedticks, coverlets, and counterpanes, tow linens, coarse shirtings, shootings, towelling and table linen, and various mixtures of wool and cotton, and of cotton and flax, are made in the household way, and in many instances, to an extent, not only sufficient for the supply of the families in which they are made, but for sale, and even in some cases for exportation. It is computed in a number of districts, that two thirds, three fourths, four fifths, and in some places even a greater proportion, of all the clothing of the inhabitants is made by them­selves. In a moral and political view these facts are highly pleasing and interesting.

The above enumeration does not comprehend all the articles that are manufactured as regular trades. The following articles, though manu­factured in a less extensive degree, and some of them in less perfection, ought to be added—Gold, silver, pewter, lead, glass and stone wares of many kinds, books in various languages, printing types and presses, bells, combs, buttons, corn fans, ploughs and all other implements of husbandry. Some of these are still in their infancy, as are others not enumerated, but which are attended with favourable appearances. There are other articles also of very great importance, which, through strictly speaking manufactures, are omitted, as being immediately con­nected with husbandry; such are flour and meal of all kinds, pot and pearl ashes, pitch, tar, turpentine, maple sugar, wine, and the like.

Having pointed out the advantages of encouraging manufactures in the United States, and enumerated the articles manufactured, it remains that we specify some of the articles which merit or require encour­agement. In making the selection of objects, five circumstances are entitled to particular attention: the capacity of the country to fur­nish the raw material—the degree in which the nature of the manufact­ure admits of a substitute for manual labour in machinery—the faculty of execution—the extensiveness of the uses, to which the article can be applied—its subserviency to other interests, particularly the great one of national defence. And of this description, none are more essential in their kinds, or more extensive in their uses, than the manufactures of iron, steel, copper, brass, lead, coal, wood, skins, grain, flax and hemp, cotton, wool, silk, glass, gunpowder, paper, printed books, refined sugars, choco­late, wines and maple sugar. These are the most important of the several kinds of manufactures, which appear to require, and at the same time to be the most proper for public encouragement, either by bounties on the articles manufactured, duties on imported articles of the same kind, or drawbacks of the duties upon the imported raw materials, accord­ing to the nature of the case.

We have mentioned the manufactures of wine and maple sugar, as objects worthy of legislative attention and encouragement in the Unit­ed States. A [...] to the first, successful experiments have already been [Page 248] made, by some new settlers of French people, on the river Ohio, ^* which evince the practicability of the manufacture of wines of an ex­cellent quality: And as grapes are the spontaneous production of all the United States, and, by culture, might be raised in any desir­able quantity, and in great perfection, this manufacture, with proper legislative encouragement, might be carried on to such an extent, as greatly to diminish, and in time, perhaps, wholly to preclude foreign importations.

The manufacture of maple sugar, though it has for [...] years been carried on, in the small way, in the eastern states, has but very lately become an object of public attention.—The east­ern and middle states furnish a sufficient number of maple trees [...] supply the United States with the article of sugar; and, it is asserted, of a quality "equal, in the opinion of competent judges, to the best sugars imported from the West-India Islands." A person, whose judgment on this subject is much to be relied on, as well from his ex­perience in the business, as his established character for candor and integrity, has given it as his opinion, "That four active and industri­ous men, well provided with materials, and conveniences proper for carrying on the business, may make, in a common season, which lasts from four to six weeks, 4000lbs, of sugar, that is 1000lbs to each man." If such be the amazing product of six weeks labour of an in­dividual, what may be expected from the labours of the many thous­ands of people who now inhabit, and may hereafter inhabit, the ex­tensive tracts of country which abound with the sugar maple tree? This manufacture is so important and interesting, as it respects th [...] wealth and prosperity of our country, and the cause of humanity, that it deserves the countenance of every good citizen, and even national encouragement. No less than 18 millions of pounds of West-India sugars, manufactured by the hands of slaves, is annually imported into and consumed in the United States. In proportion as this quantity can be lessened by our own manufactures, by the hands of [...] the wealth of the United States will be increased, and the cause of hu­manity promoted.

MILITARY STRENGTH.] Standing armies are deemed inconsistent with a republican government; we of course have none. ^§ Our mili­tary strength lies in a well disciplined militia. According to the [...] census, there are in the United States, 814,000 men of 16 years old and upwards, whites. Suppose that the superannuated, the officers of government and the other classes of people who are excused from military duty, amount to 114,000, there will remain a militia of 700,000 men. Of these a great proportion are well disciplined, ve [...]eran troops. No nation or kingdom in Europe, can bring into the field an army of equal numbers, more formidable than can be raised in the United States.

FINANCES.] The Revenue of the United States is raised from [...] ­ties on the tonnage of vessels entered in the United States, and on [...] ­ported goods. wares and merchandize, and from an excise on various articles of consumption. The amount of the duties arising on the tonnage of vessels, for the year commencing October 1st 1799, and ending September 30th 1791, amounted to 145,347 dollars. The du­ties arising on goods, wares and merchandize, for the same year, amount­ed [Page 249] to 3,006,722 dollars. The whole amount of the revenue from the excise is not accurately known. In Massachusetts it amounts annually to 200,000 dollars. The old Congress, in their last requisitions, con­sidered Massachusetts as a sixth part. If this proportion be accurate, the whole amount of the excise will be 1,200,000 dollars.

This revenue is appropriated to the purposes of supporting the civ­il and military establishments, in the payment of the interest, and the diminution of the principal, of the Public Debt.

In the year following October 1st 1789, the expenses and revenue of Government were as follows,

FOREIGN DEBT.

The whole amount of the Foreign Debt of the United States, is about 1 [...] million dollars; of which about 6,900,000 dollars are due to France. [...] the rest to Holland. The Executive has been empowered to make [...] additional Loan in Holland, sufficient to pay the debt to France; and measures for that purpose have been in agitation in Holland.

The act, making provision for the debt of the United States, has ap­propriated the proceeds of the western lands as a fund for the dis­charge of the public debt. And the act, making provision for the re­duction of the public debt, has appropriated all the surplus of the [...] ­ties [Page 250] on imports and tonnage, to the end of the year 1790, to the pur­pose of purchasing the debt at the market price; and has authorities the President to borrow the further sum of two millions of dollars for the same object. These measures serve to indicate the intention of the legislature, as early and as fast as possible, to provide for the extin­guishment of the existing debt.

The present eligible situation of the United States, compared with that of Europe at large, as it respects taxes or contributions for the payment of all public charges, appears from the following statement, furnished by a gentleman of acknowledged abilities. In the United States, the average proportion of his earnings which each citizen pays for the support of the civil, military and naval establishments, and for the discharge of the interest of the public debts of his country, is a­bout one dollar and a quarter; equal to two days labour, nearly; that is 5 millions of dollars to 4 millions of people. In Great Britain, France, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Germany, &c. the taxes for these objects, on an average, amount to about six dollars and a quarter, to each person. Hence it appears, that in the United States, we enjoy the blessings of free government, and mild laws; of personal liberty, and protection of property, for one fifth part of the sum for each individual, which is paid in Europe for the purchase of public benefits of a similar nature, and too generally without attaining their objects: for less than one fifth, indeed, as in European countries, in general, 10 days labour, on an average, do not amount to 6¼ dollars. In this estimate proper allowances [...] made for public debts. The Indian war in the United States, at pre­sent, requires nearly half a million of dollars annually, extra; but this, being temporary only, is not taken into the estimate.

From the best data that can be collected, the taxes in the United States, for county, town and parish purposes; for the support of schools, the poor, roads, &c. appear to be considerably less than in those countries; and perhaps the objects of them, except in roads, is at­tained in a more perfect degree. Great precision is not to be expect­ed in these calculations; but we have sufficient documents to prove that we are not far from the truth. The proportion in the United States is well ascertained; and with equal accuracy in France, by Mr. Neckar; and in England, Holland, Spain and other kingdoms in Eu­rope, by him, Zimmermann, and other writers on the subject.

For the objects of the late war and civil government, in the United States, nearly 12 millions of dollars were annually raised, for nine years successively, apportioned on the number of inhabitants at that period, which amounted to a little short of four dollars to each person. This was raised principally by direct taxes. Perhaps a contribution of six dollars a person, would not have been so severely felt, had a part of it been raised by impost and excise. These sums, raised for the war, by the free exertions of the people, obviate all such object­ions as assert that the United States are poor; at the same time they evince that their situation is eligible and prosperous, by shewing how large a proportion of their earnings, the people, in general, can apply to their private purposes.

BANK OF THE UNITED STATES.] This Bank was incorporated by act of Congress, February, 25th 1791, by the name and stile of The President, [...] [...] Company of the Bank of the United States. The amount of [...] capital stock is 10 million dollars, one fourth of which [...] that part of the public [Page 251] debt of the United States, which, at the time of payment, bears an ac­cruing interest of 6 per cent. per annum. Two millions of this capi­tal stock of 10 millions, is subscribed by the President, in behalf of the United States. The Stockholders are to continue a corporate body, by the act, until the 4th day of March 1 [...]11; and are capable, in law, of holding property to an amount not exceeding, in the whole, 15 million dollars, including the aforesaid 10 million dollars, capital stock. The corporation may not at any time owe, whether by bond, bill or note, or other contract, more than 10 million dollars, over and above the monies then actually deposited in the Bank for safe keeping, unless the contracting of any greater debt shall have been previously author­ised by a law of the United States. The corporation is not at liberty to receive more than 6 per cent. per annum for or upon its loans or discounts; nor to purchase any public debt whatever, or to deal or trade, directly or indirectly, in any thing except bills of exchange, gold or silver bullion, or in the sale of goods really and truly pledged, for money lent, and not redeemed in due time, or of goods which shall be the produce of its bonds; they may sell any part of the public debt of which its stock shall be composed. Loans not exceed­ing 100,000 dollars, may be made to the United States, and to partic­ular states, of a sum not exceeding 50,000 dollars.

Offices for the purposes of discount and deposit only, may be estab­lished within the United States, upon the same terms, and in the same manner, as shall be practised at the bank. Four of these offices, call­ed Branch Banks, have been already established, viz. at Boston, New York, Baltimore and Charleston. The faith of the United States is pledged that no other bank shall be established by any future law of the United States, during the continuance of the above Corporation. The great benefits of this Bank, as it respects, public credit and com­merce, have already been experienced.

RELIGION.] The constitution of the United States, provides a­gainst the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise of it. And in the constitutions of the respective states, religious liberty is a fundamental principle. In this important article, our government, is distinguished from that of every other nation, if we except France. Religion here, is placed on its proper basis; without the feeble and unwarranted aid of the civil power, it is left to be supported by its own evidence, by the lives of its professors, and the Almighty care of its Divine Author.

All being thus left at liberty to choose their own religion, the peo­ple, as might easily be supposed, have varied in their choice. The bull of the people would denominate themselves Christians; a final pro­portion of them are Jews; some plead the sufficiency of natural relig­ion, and reject revelation at unnecessary and fabulous; and many, we have reason to believe, have yet their religion to choose. Christian profess their religion under various forms, and with different ideas of it, doctrines, ordinances and precepts. The following denominations o [...] christians are more or less numerous in the United States, viz. Con­gregationalists, Presbyterians, Dutch Reformed Church, Episcopalians, Baptists, Quakers or Friends, Methodists, Roman Catholics, German Lutherans, German Calvinists or Presbyterians, Moravians, Tunkers, [...]eaonists, Universalists, and Shakers.

Of these the CONGREGATIONALISTS are the most numerous. In New England alone, besides those which are scattered through the [...] [Page 252] and southern states, there are not less than 1000 congregations of this denomination, viz.

It is difficult to say what is the present ecclesiastical constitution of the Congregational churches. Formerly their ecclesiastical pro­ceedings were regulated, in Massachusetts, by the Cambridge platform of church discipline, established by the Synod, 1648: and in Con [...] ­ [...]ut, by the Saybrook Platform of discipline; but since the revolution, less regard has been paid to these constitutions, and in many in­stances they are wholly disused. Congregationalists are pretty gen­erally agreed in this opinion, that "Every church or particular congregation of visible saints, in gospel order, being furnished with a Pastor of Bishop, and walking together in truth and peace, has re­ceived from the Lord Jesus full power and authority, ecclesiastical, within itself, regularly to administer all the ordinances of Christ, and is not under any other ecclesiastical jurisdiction whatsoever." Their churches, with some exceptions, disclaim the word Independent, as applicable to them, and claim a sisterly relation to each other.

From the answer of the Elders, and other messengers of the churches assembled at Boston, in the year 1662, to the questions proposed to them by order of the General Court, it appears that [...] churches, at that period, professed to hold communion with each other in the following acts, viz.

1. "In hearty care and prayer one for another—2. In affording relief, by communication of their gifts in temporal or spiritual [...] ­sities.—3. In maintaining unity and peace, by giving account [...] another of their public actions, when it is properly desired; to strengthen one another in their regular administrations; in particular by a concurrent testimony against persons justly censured.—4. To [...] and accept help from, and afford help to each other, in case of [...] ­sions, and contentions, whereby the peace of any church is disturbed—in matters of more than ordinary importance, as the ordination, instal­lation, removal, and deposition of Pastors or Bishops—in doubtful and difficult questions and controversies, doctrinal or practical, that may arise—and for the rectifying of mal-administration, and healing of errors and scandals that are not healed among themselves.—5. In [...] ­ing notice, with a spirit of love and faithfulness, of the troubles and difficulties, errors and scandals of another church, and to admini [...] help (when the case manifestly calls for it) though they should so [...] ­lect their own good and duty, as not to seek it.—6. In admonis [...] one another, when there is cause for it; and after a due con [...] of means, patiently to withdraw from a church, or peccant party [...] obstinately persisting in error or scandal."

A consociation of churches was at the period mentioned, considered as necessary to a communion of churches, (the former being but an agree­ment to maintain the latter) and therefore a duty. The consociation of churches they defined to be, "Their mutual and solemn agreement to exer­cise [Page 253] communion in such acts as aforesaid (meaning, the acts of commun­ion above recited) amongst themselves, with special reference to those churches which, by Providence, are planted in a convenient vicinity, though with liberty reserved without offence, to make use of others, as the nature of the case, or the advantage of the opportunity may lead thereunto."

The ministers of the Congregational order, are pretty generally asso­ciated for the purposes of licensing candidates for the ministry, and friendly intercourse and improvement; but there are few congrega­tional churches that are consociated, on the above principles; and the practice has very generally gone into disuse, and with it the commun­ion of churches in most of the acts before recited. In Connecticut and the western parts of Massachusetts, the churches have deviated less from their original constitution. The degeneracy of the con­gregational churches from that order, fellowship and harmony, in dis­cipline, doctrines, and friendly advice and assistance in ecclesiastical matters, which formerly subsisted between them, is matter of deep re­gret to many, not to say to most people of that denomination. A re­formation, or a return to a practice conformable to the original princi­ples of the congregational churches, is an event more earnestly desir­ed, than confidently expected.

Congregationalists are divided in opinion respecting the doctrines of the gospel, and the proper subjects of its ordinances. The body of th [...] are Calvinists; a respectable proportion are what may be de­ [...]inated Hopkensian Calvinists; besides these, some are Arminians, some Arians, a few Socinians, and a number who have adopted Dr. Chauncy's scheme of the final salvation of all men. ^*

Next to Congregationalists, PRESBYTERIANS are the most numerous denomination of christians in the United States. They have a constitu­tion, by which they regulate all their ecclesiastical proceedings, and a confession of faith, which all church officers and church members are required to subscribe. Hence they have preserved, a singular uniform­ity in their religious sentiments. and have conducted their ecclesiasti­cal affairs with a great degree of order and harmony.

The body of the presbyterians inhabit the middle and southern states, and are united under the same constitution. By this constitu­tion, the Presbyterians who are governed by it, are divided into five synods and seventeen presbyteries; viz. Synod of New-York, 5 pres­byteries; 94 congregations; 61 settled ministers.—2. Synod of Phil­adelphia, 5 presbyteries; 92 congregations; 60 settled ministers, be­sides the ministers and congregations belonging to Baltimore pres­bytery.—3. Synod of Virginia, 4 presbyteries; 70 congregations; 40 settled ministers, exclusive of the congregations and ministers of Tran­ [...]ia presbytery.—4. Synod of the Carolinas, 3 presbyteries: 82 congregations; 42 settled ministers; the ministers and congregations in [...]bington presbytery not included. If we suppose the number of con­gregations in the presbyteries which made no returns to their synods. [...] 100, and the number of settled ministers in the same to be 40, the whole number of presbyterian congregations in this connection, will be 438, which are supplied by 223 settled ministers, and between 70 and 80 candidates, besides a number of ordained ministers who have no [Page 254] particular charges. Each of the four synods meet annually; besides which they have a joint meeting, by their commissioners, once a year, in General Assembly at Philadelphia.

The Presbyterian churches are governed by congregational, presby­terial and synodical assemblies. These assemblies possess no civil juris­diction. Their power is wholly moral or spiritual, and that only ministerial and declarative. They possess the right of requiring obe­dience to the laws of Christ, and of excluding the disobedient from the privileges of the church; and the powers requisite for obtaining evidence and inflicting censure; but the highest punishment, to which their authority extends, is to exclude the contumacious and impenitent from the congregation of believers.

The Church Session, which is the congregational assembly of judicatory, consists of the minister or ministers and elders of a particular con­gregation. This body is invested with the spiritual government of the congregation; and have power to enquire into the knowledge and christian conduct of all its members; to call before them offenders and witnesses, of their own denomination; to admonish, suspend or ex­clude from the sacraments, such as deserve these censures; to [...] measures for promoting the spiritual interests of the congregation; and to appoint delegates to the higher judicatories of the church.

A Presbytery consists of all the ministers, and one ruling elder [...] each congregation, within a certain district. Three ministers and three elders, constitutionally convened, are competent to do business. This body have cognizance of all things that regard the welfare of the particular churches within their bounds, which are not cognizable by the session. Also, they have a power of receiving and issuing appeals from the sessions—of examining and licensing candidates for the min­istry—of ordaining, settling, removing, or judging ministers—of resolv­ing questions of doctrine or discipline—of condemning erroneous opinions, that injure the purity or peace of the church—of visiting particular churches, to enquire into their state, and redress the evils that may have arisen in them—of uniting or dividing congregations, at the request of the people; and whatever else pertains to the spirit­ual concerns of the churches under their care.

A Synod is a convention of several presbyteries. The synod have power to admit and judge of appeals, regularly brought up from the presbyteries—to give their judgment on all references made to them, of an ecclesiastical kind—to correct and regulate the proceedings of presbyteries—to take effectual care that presbyteries observe the con­xstitution of the church, &c.

The highest judicatory of the Presbyterian church is stiled The Gene­ral Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. This grand Assembly is to consist of an equal delegation of bishops and el­ders from each presbytery within their jurisdiction, by the title of Commis­sioners, to the General Assembly. Fourteen commissioners make a quorum. The General Assembly constitute the bond of union, peace, correspondence, and mutual confidence among all their churches; and have power to re­ceive and issue all appeals and references which may regularly be brought before them from inferior judicatories—to regulate and cor­rect the proceedings of the synods, &c. To the General Assembly also belongs the power of consulting, reasoning, and judging in controver­sies respecting doctrine and discipline; of reproving, warning or bear­ing testimony against error in doctrine, or immorality in practice [...] [Page 255] any church, presbytery or synod—of corresponding with foreign churches—of putting a stop to schismatical contentions and disputa­tions—and in general of recommending and attempting reformation of manners, and of promoting charity, truth and holiness in all the churches—and also of erecting new synods, when they judge it necessary.

The confession of faith adopted by the Presbyterian church, em­braces what are called the Calvinistic doctrines; and none who disbe­lieve these doctrines are admitted into fellowship with their churches. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian church, hold a friendly cor­respondence with the General Association in Connecticut, by letter, and by admitting delegates from their respective bodies, to fit in each others general meetings.

Disconnected with the churches of which we have been speaking, there are four small presbyteries in New England, who have a similar from of ecclesiastical government and discipline, and profess the same doctrines.

Besides these, there is the "Associate Presbytery of Pennsylvania" having a separate ecclesiastical jurisdiction, in America, and belong­ing to the Associate Synod of Edinburgh, which they declare is the only ecclesiastical body, either in Britain or America, with which they are agreed concerning the doctrine and order of the church of Christ, and concerning the duty of confessing the truth, and bearing wit­ness to it by a public testimony against the errors of the times. This connection is not to be understood as indicating subjection to a for­eign jurisdiction; but is preserved for the sake of maintaining unity with their brethren in the profession of the christian faith, and such an intercourse as might be of service to the interests of religion. This sect of Presbyterians are commonly known by the name of Seceders, on account of their seceding from the national church in Scotland, in 1736. ^*

The DUTCH REFORMED churches in the United States, who maintain the doctrine of the synod of Dort, held in 1618 are between 70 and 80 in number, constituting six classes, which form one synod, styled. "The Dutch Reformed Synod of New-York and New Jersey." The classes consist of ministers and ruling elders; each classis delegates two min­isters and an elder to represent them in synod. From the first plant­ing of the Dutch churches in New York and New Jersey, they have, under the direction of the classis of Amsterdam, been formed exactly upon the plan of the established church of Holland, as far as that is ec­clesiastical. A strict correspondence is maintained between the Dutch Reformed Synod of New York and New Jersey, and the synod of North-Holland, and the classis of Amsterdam. The acts of their synods are mutually exchanged every year, and mutual advice is given and received, in disputes respecting doctrinal points and church discipline.

The PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL Church in the United States (the churches of that denomination in New England excepted) met in Con­vention at Philadelphia, October, 1785, and revised the book of com­mon prayer, and administration of the sacraments, and other rites and [...]monies, with a view to render the liturgy consistent with the Amer­ican Revolution. But this revised form was adopted by none of the churches except one or two in Philadelphia.

In October, 1789, at another meeting of their convention, a plan of union among all the Protestant Episcopal churches in the Unit­ed States of America, was agreed upon and settled; and an ade­quate representation from the several States being present, they a­gain [Page 256] revised the book of common prayer, which is now published and generally adopted by their churches. They also agreed upon and published 17 canons for the government of their church, the first of which declares that "these shall, in this church, be three orders in the ministry, viz. Bishops, Priests and Deacons."

At the same time they agreed upon a Constitution which provides that there shall be a general convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, on the second Tuesday of September, of every third year from 1789—That each state is entitled to a representation of both the clergy and the laity, or either of them, and may send deputies, not exceeding four of each order, chosen by the convention of the State.—That the bishops of the church, when three or more are present, shall, in their general conventions, form a separate house, with a right to originate and propose acts for the concurrence of the house of depu­ties, composed of clergy and laity; and with a power to negative [...] passed by the house of deputies, unless adhered to by four fifths of the other house.—That every bishop shall confine the exercise of his epis­copal office to his proper diocese or district.—That no person shall in admitted to holy orders, until examined by the bishop and two pres­byters, having produced the requisite testimonials—and that no person shall be ordained until he shall have subscribed the following declara­tion—"I do believe the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa­ment to be the Word of God, and to contain all things necessary to salvation; and I do solemnly engage to conform to the doctrines and worship of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States."

They have not yet adopted any Articles of religion other than those contained in the Apostles and Nicene Creeds. The number of Episcopal churches in the United States is not ascertained; in New England there are between forty and fifty; but in the southern states, they are much more numerous. Four Bishops, viz. of Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia, have been elected by the conventions of their respective states, and have been duly consecrated. The former by the Bishops of the Scotch Church, the three latter, by the Bishops of the English church. And these four, in September 179 [...], united in the consecration of a fifth, elected by the conventions of the state of Maryland.

The BAPTISTS, with some exceptions, are upon the calvinistic plan, as to doctrines, and independents as to church government and disci­pline. Except those who are styled " open communion baptists," of whom there is but one association, they refuse to communicate in the ordi­nance of the Lord's Supper, with other denominations; because they hold that immersion only is the true baptism, and that baptism is necessary to communion; it is, therefore, improper and inconsistent, in their opinion, to admit unbaptized persons, (as all others are, in their view, but themselves) to join with them in this ordinance; though they allow ministers of other denominations to preach to their congre­gations, and sometimes to assist in ordaining their ministers.

From an account taken by a preacher ^* of the baptist denomination, who has travelled through the United States, to ascertain their num­ber and state, we are enabled to give the following statement of their associations, churches, ministers, church members, and principles.

To this account, the compiler conjectures that 1500 members, and 30 Churches ought to be added—making the whole number of Churches about 900, and the members about 66,000. He suppose moreover that at least three times, as many attend their meetings, as have joined their churches, which, if we suppose all who attend their meetings are in principle Baptists, will make the whole number of that denomination in these states, 198,000, or a twenty sixth part of the inhabitants.

Some of the leading principles of the regular or particular baptists, are—The imputation of Adam's sin to his posterity—the inability of [...] to recover himself—effectual calling by sovereign grace—justifica­tion by the imputed righteousness of Christ—immersion for baptism, and that on profession of faith and repentance—congregational church­es, and their independency, and reception into them upon evidence of sound conversion.

We shall next speak of the people called QUAKERS. ^* This denomina­tion of christians arose about the year 1648, and were first collected into religious societies by their highly respected elder, George Fox. [Page 258] They came to America as early as 1656. The first settlers of Penn­sylvania were all of this denomination; and the number of Friends meetings in the United States, at present, is about 320.

Their doctrinal tenets may be summarily expressed as follows—In common with other christians, they believe in One Eternal God, and in Jesus Christ the Messiah and Mediator of the new covenant. To Christ alone, in whose divinity they believe, they give the title of the Word of God, and not to the Scriptures; yet they profess a high es­teem for these sacred writings, in subordination to the Spirit who in­dited them, and believe that they are able, through faith, to make wife to salvation—They reverence the excellent precepts of Scripture, and believe them practicable and binding on every christian; and that in the life to come, every man will be rewarded according to his works. In order to enable mankind to put in practice these precepts, they believe, that every man coming into the world is endued with a measure of the Light, Grace or Good Spirit of Christ; by which he is enabled to distinguish good from evil, and correct the disorderly passions and corrupt propensities of his nature, which mere reason is altogether insufficient to overcome—that this divine grace is, to those who sincerely seek it, an all sufficient and present help in time of need—and that by it the snares of the enemy are detected, his allurements avoided, and deliverance experienced, through faith in its effectual op­eration, and the soul translated out of the kingdom of darkness into the marvellous light and kingdom of the Son of God—Thus persuad­ed, they think this divine influence especially necessary to the perform­ance of the highest act of which the human mind is capable, the wor­ship of God in spirit and in truth; and therefore consider, as obstruc­tions to pure worship, all forms which divert the mind from the secret influence of this unction of the Holy One—Though true worship is not confined to time or place, they believe it is incumbent on church­es to meet often together, but dare not depend for acceptance, on a formal repetition of the words and experiences of others—They think it is their duty to wait in silence to have a true sight of their condition bestowed on them; and believe even a single sigh, arising from a sense of their infirmities and need of divine help, to be more acceptable to God, than any performances which originate in the will of man.

They believe the renewed assistance of the light and power of Christ, which is not at our command, nor attainable by study, but the free gift of God, to be indispensibly necessary to all true ministry—Hence arises their testimony against preaching for hire, and conscientious re­fusal to support such ministry by tythes or other means.—As they [...] not encourage any ministry, but such as they believe to spring from the influence of the Holy Spirit; so neither dare they attempt to re­strain this influence to persons of any condition in life, or to the [...] sex—but allow such of the female sex as appear to be qualified, to ex­ercise their gifts for the general edification of the church.

They hold that as there is one Lord and one faith, so his baptism is one in nature and operation, and that nothing short of it can made us living members of his mystical body; and that baptism with wa­ter belonged to an inferior and decreasing dispensation. With respect to the Lord's Supper, they believe that communication between Christ and his Church, is not maintained by that nor any other external [...] ­nance, but only by a real participation of his divine nature, through [Page 259] faith; that this is the supper alluded to Rev. iii. 20—and that where the substance is attained, it is unnecessary to attend to the shadow.

Believing that the grace of God is alone sufficient for salvation, they can neither admit that it is conferred on a few only, while others are left without it; nor, thus asserting its universality, can they limit its operation to a partial cleansing of the soul from sin, even in this life—On the contrary, they believe that God doth vouchsafe to assist the obedient to submit to the guidance of his pure spirit, through whose assistance they are enabled to bring forth fruits unto holiness, and to stand perfect in their present rank.

As to oaths, they abide literally by Christ's positive injunction, "Swear not at all." They believe that "wars and fightings" are, in their origin and effects, utterly repugnant to the Gospel, which still breathes peace and good will to men. ^* They also are firmly persuad­ed that if the benevolence of the Gospel, were generally prevalent in the minds of men, it would effectually prevent them from oppressing, much more from enslaving ^† their brethren, of whatever complexion; and would even influence their treatment of the brute creation, which would no longer groan the victims of their avarice, or of their false ideas of pleasure.—They profess that their principles, which inculcate submission to the laws in all cases wherein conscience is not violated, are a security to the salutary purposes of government.—But they hold that the civil magistrate has no right to interfere in matters of relig­ion, and think persecution, in any degree, unwarrantable.—They re­ject the use of those names of the months and days, which, having been given in honour of the heroes or gods of the heathen, originat­ed in their flattery or superstition; and the custom of speaking to a flagle person in the plural number, as having arisen also from motives of adulation. Compliments, superfluity of apparel or furniture, out­ward shews of rejoicing or mourning, and observations of days and times, they deem incompatible with the simplicity and sincerity of a christian life—and they condemn public diversions, gaming, and other vain amusements of the world.—They require no formal subscription to any articles, either as the condition of membership, or to qualify for the service of the Church.

To effect the salutary purposes of discipline, Monthly, Quarterly and Yearly meetings are established.—A Monthly meeting is composed of several neighbouring congregations.—Its business is to provide for the subsistence of the poor, and for the education of their offspring—to judge of the sincerity and fitness of persons appearing to be convinced of the religious principles of the society, and desiring to be admitted to membership; to excite due attention to the discharge of religious and moral duties; to deal with disorderly members—to appoint over­seers to see that the rules of their dicipline are put in practice—to al­low of marriages, &c. ^‡

[Page 260] A Quarterly meeting is composed of several Monthly meetings. At this meeting are produced written answers from monthly meetings, to certain questions respecting the conduct of their members and the meeting's care over them. The accounts thus received, are digested and sent by representatives, to the yearly meeting. Appeals from the judgement of monthly meetings, are brought to the quarterly meetings.

The Yearly meeting has the general superintendance of the society in the country in which it is established. ^† The business of this meet­ing is to give forth its advice—make such regulations as appear to be requisite, or excite to the observance of those already made, &c. Ap­peals from the judgment of quarterly meetings are here finally deter­mined; and a brotherly correspondence, by epistles, is maintained with other yearly meetings.

As they believe women may be rightly called to the work of the ministry, they also think they may share in their christian discipline. Accordingly they have monthly, quarterly, and yearly meetings of their own sex; held at the same time, and in the same place with those of the men; but separately, and without the power of making rules.

Their elders and ministers have meetings peculiar to themselves. These meetings, called Meetings of ministers and elders, are generally held in the compass of each monthly, quarterly, and Yearly meeting—for the purposes of exciting each other to the discharge of their sev­eral duties—of extending advice to those who may appear weak, &c. They also, in the intervals of the yearly meetings, give certificates to those ministers who travel abroad in the work of the ministry.

The yearly meeting, held in London, 1675, appointed a meeting to be held in that city, for the purpose of advising and assisting in cases of suffering for conscience sake, called Meeting for sufferings, which is yet continued. It is composed of Friends under the name of correspondents, chosen by the several quarterly meetings, who reside in and near the city. This meeting is intrusted with the care of printing and distributing books, and with the management of its stock, and considered as a standing committee of the yearly meet­ing.—In none of their meetings have they a President, as they believe Divine Wisdom alone ought to preside; nor has any member a right to claim pre-eminence over the rest.

The METHEODIST denomination of christians arose in England in 1739; and made their first appearance in America about 24 years since. Their general style is, "The United Societies of the Methodist Epis­copal Church." They profess themselves to be "a company of men, having the form and seeking the power of godliness, united into order to pray together, to receive the word of exhortation, and to watch over one another in love, that they may help each other to work out their salvation."—Each society is divided into classes of 12 persons; one of whom is stiled the Leader, whose business it is to see each person in [Page 261] his class once a week, in order to enquire, how their souls prosper, to advise, reprove, comfort or exhort as occasion may require; and to receive contributions for the relief of the church and poor. In order to admission into their societies they require only one condition, viz. "A desire to flee from the wrath to come, i. e. a desire to be saved from their sins." It is expected of all who continue in their societies, that they should evidence their desire of salvation, by doing no harm, by avoiding all manner of evil, by doing all manner of good, as they have ability and opportunity, especially to the household of faith; employing them preferably to others, buying of one another (unless they can be served better elsewhere) and helping each other in busi­ness—And also by attending upon all the ordinances of God; such as publick worship, the supper of the Lord, family and private prayer, searching the scriptures, and fasting or abstinence. The late celebrat­ed Mr. John Wesley, is considered as the father of this class of Me­thodists, who, as they deny some of the leading Calvinistic doctrines, and hold some of the peculiar tenets of Arminius, may be called Ar­minian Methodists.—The famous Mr. Whitefield, was the leader of the Calvinistic Methodists, who are numerous is England, and a few are in different parts of the United States, who were patronized and suppli­ed with ministers, by the late lady Huntingdon.

In 1788, the number of Wesl [...]ian Methodists in the United States, stood thus,

Since this estimate of their numbers was taken, some few scattering societies have been collected in different parts of the New England States, and their numbers increased in other parts; so that in 1790, the whole connection amounted to 57,621. To superintend the Methodist connection in America, they had, in 1768, two Bishops, 30 Elders and 50 Deacons.

In Great Britain and Ireland, the whole number of persons in full connection with the Methodist Episcopal church, amounted, in [...] to 71,568.

The whole number of RONAN CATHOLICS in the United States is estimated at about 50 000; one half of which are in the state of Maryland. Their peculiar and leading doctrines and tenets, are too generally known to need a recital here. They have a Bishop, who resides in Baltimore, and many of their congregations are large and respectable.

The German inhabitants in these states, who principally belong to Pennsylvania, and New York, are divided into a variety of sects; the principal of which are, Lutherans, Calvinists or Presbyterians, Mora­ [...], Tunkers, and Mennonists. Of these the German Lutherans are the most numerous. Of this denomination, and the German Presby­terians or Calvinists, who are next to them in numbers, there are up­wards of 60 ministers, in Pennsylvania—and the former have 12, and the latter 6 churches in the state of New York. Many of their churches are large and splendid▪ and in some instances furnished with [...]. These two denominations live together in the greatest har­mony, [Page 262] money often preaching in each others churches, and sometimes unit­ing in the erection of a church, in which they alternately wor­ship.

The MORAVIANS are a respectable body of christians in these States. Of this denomination, there were, in 1788, about 1300 souls in Penn­sylvania; viz. at Bethlehem, between 5 and 600, which number has since increased—at Nazareth, 450; at Litiz, upwards of 300. Their other settlements, in the United States, are at Hope, in New-Jersey, about 100 souls; at Wachovia, on Yadkin river, North Carolina, con­taining 6 churches. Besides these regular settlements, formed by such only as are members of the brethren's church, and live together in good order and harmony, there are in different parts of Pennsylva­nia, Maryland and New Jersey, and in the cities and towns of New­port, (R. Island) New York, Philadelphia, Lancaster, Yorktown, &c. congregations of the brethren, who have their own church and min­ister, and hold the same principles, and doctrinal tenets, and church rites and ceremonies as the former, though their local situation does not admit of such particular regulations, as are peculiar to the regular settlements.

The call themselves, "The United Brethren of the Protestant Episcopal Church." They are called Moravians, because the first settlers in the English dominions were chiefly migrants from Moravia. These were the remnant and genuine descendents of the church of the an­cient United Brethren, established in Bohemia and Moravia, as early as the year 1456. About the middle of the last century, they left their native country to avoid persecution, and to enjoy liberty of conscience, and the true exercise of the religion of their fore-fathers. They were received in Saxony, and other Protestant dominions, and were encouraged to settle among them, and were joined by many se­rious people of other denominations. They adhere to the Augustan Confession of Faith, which was drawn up by the Protestant divines at the time of the reformation in Germany, in the year 1530, and pre­sented at the diet of the empire at Ausburg; and which, a [...] that time, contained the doctrinal system of all the established Protes­tant churches. They retain the discipline of their ancient church, and make use of Episcopal ordination, which has been handed down to them in a direct line of succession, for more than three hundred years. ^*

They profess to live in strict obedience to the ordinances of Christ, such as the observation of the Sabbath, Infant Baptism, and the Lord's Supper; and in addition to these, they practice the foot washing the kiss of love, and the use of the lot.

They were introduced into America by Count Zinzendorf, and set­tled at Bethlehem, which is their principal settlement in America, as early as 1741. Regularity, industry, ingenuity and economy, are cha­racteristics these people.

The TUNKERS are so called in derision, from the word sunken, is put a morsel in sauce. The English word that conveys the proper mean­ing of Tunkers is Sops or Dippers. They are also called Tumbl [...], [Page 263] from the manner in which they perform baptism, which is by putting the person, while kneeling, head first under water, so as to resemble the motion of the body in the action of tumbling. The Ger­mans sound the letters t and b like d and p; hence the words Tunk­ers and Tumblers, have been corruptly written Dunkers and Dump­lers.

The first appearing of these people in America, was in the fall of the year 1719, when about twenty families landed in Philadelphia, and dispersed themselves in various parts of Pennsylvania. They are what are called General Baptists, and hold to general redemption and general salvation. They use great plainness of dress and language, and will neither swear, nor fight, nor go to law, nor take interest for the money they lend. They commonly wear their beards—keep the first day Sabbath, except one congregation—have the Lord's Supper with its ancient attendants of Love-feasts, with washing of feet, kiss of charity, and right hand of fellowship. They anoint the sick with oil for their recovery, and use the trine immer­sion, with laying on of hands and prayer, even while the person bap­tised is in the water. Their church government and discipline are the same with those of the English Baptists, except that every brother is allowed to speak in the congregation; and their best speaker is usual­ly ordained to be their minister. They have deacons, deaconesses (from among their ancient widows) and exhorters, who are all licens­ed to use their gifts statedly. On the whole, notwithstanding their peculiarities, they appear to be humble, well meaning christians, and have acquired the character of the harmless Tunkers.

Their principal settlement is at Ephrata, sometimes called Tunkers­town, in Lancaster county, sixty miles westward of Philadelphia. It consists of about forty buildings, of which three are places of worship: One is called Sharon, and adjoins the sister's apartment as a chapel; another, belonging to the brothers apartment, is called Bethany. To these the brethren and sisters resort, separately, to worship morning and evening, and sometimes in the night. The third is a common church, called Zion, where all in the settlement meet once a week for public worship. The brethren have adopted the White Friars' dress, with some alterations; the sisters that of the nuns; and both like them have taken the vow of celibacy. All however do not keep the vow. When they marry, they leave their cells and go among the married people. They subsist by cultivating their lands, by attending a printing office, a g [...]ist mill, a paper mill, an oil mill, &c. and the sisters by spinning, weaving, sewing, &c. They at first slept on board couch­es, but now on beds, and have otherwise abated much of their form­er severity. This congregation keep the seventh day Sab­bath. Their singing is charming, owing to the pleasantness of their voices, the variety of parts, and the devout manner of performance. Besides this congregation at Ephrata, there were, in 1770, fourteen others in various other parts of Pennsylvania, and some in Maryland. The whole, exclusive of those in Maryland, amounted to upwards of [...]000 souls.

The MENNONISTS derive their name from Menno Simon, a na­tive of Witmars in Germany, a man of learning, born in the year 150 [...], in the time of the reformation by Luther and Calvin. He was a famous Roman Catholic preacher, till about the year 1 [...]3 [...], when he became a Baptist. Some of his followers came into Pennsylvania from [Page 264] New York and settled at Germantown, as early as 1692. This is at present their principal congregation, and the mother of the rest. Their whole number, in 1770, in Pennsylvania, was upwards of 4000, divid­ed into thirteen churches, and forty-two congregations, under the care of fifteen ordained ministers, and fifty three licensed preachers

The Mennonists do not, like the Tunkers, hold the doctrine of gen­eral salvation; yet like them, they will neither swear nor fight, nor bear any civil office, nor go to law, nor take interest for the money they lend, though many break this last rule. Some of them wear their beards; wash each others feet, &c. and all use plainness of speech and dress. Some have been expelled their society for wearing buckles in their shoes, and having pocket holes in their coats. Their church government is democratical. They call themselves the Harmless christ­ians, Revengeless christians and Weaponless christians. They are Bap­tists rather in name than in fact; for they do not use immersion. Their common mode of baptism is this: The person to be baptized kneels; the minister holds his hands over him, into which the deacon pours water, which runs through upon the head of the person kneeling. After this, follow imposition of hands and prayer.

The denomination stiled UNIVERSALISTS, though their schemes are very various, may properly enough be divided into two classes, viz. Those who embrace the scheme of Dr. Chauncey, exhibited in his book entitled "The Salvation of all Men;" and the disciples of Mr. Winchester and Mr. John Murray.

A judicious summary of Dr. Chauncey's sentiments has been given, ^* as follows.

"That the scheme of revelation has the happiness of all mankind ly­ing at bottom, as its great and ultimate end; that it gradually tend [...] this end; and will not fail of its accomplishment, when fully completed. Some, in consequence of its operation, as conducted by the Son of God, will he disposed and enabled, in this present state, to make such im­provements in virtue, the only rational preparative for happiness, as that they shall enter upon the enjoyment of it in the next state. Oth­ers, who have proved incurable under the means which have been used with them in this state, instead of being happy in the next, will be awfully miserable; not to continue so finally, but that they may be convinced of their folly, and recovered to a virtuous frame of mind: and this will be the effect of the future torments upon many; the con­sequence whereof will be their salvation, they being thus fitted for it. And there may be yet other states, before the scheme of God may be perfected, and mankind universally cured of their moral disorders, and in this way qualified for, and finally instated in, eternal happiness. But however many states some of the individuals of the human spe­cies may pass through, and of however long continuance they may be, the whole is intended to subserve the grand design of universal happiness, and will finally terminate in it; insomuch, that the Son of God and Saviour of men, will not deliver up his trust into the hands of the Father, who committed it to him, till he has discharged his obligations in virtue of it; having finally fixed all men in heaven, when God will be All in All."

The number of this denomination is not known. The open advo­cates of this scheme are few; though the number is larger, who em­brace [Page 265] the doctrine of the salvation of all men, upon principles simi­lar, but variously differing from those on which the abovementioned schemes is grounded.

The latter class of Universalists have a new scheme, differing essential­ly from that of the former, which they reject as inconsistent and absurd: And they cannot conceive how they who em brace it, can, "with any degree of propriety, be called Universalists, on Apostolic principles, as it does not appear that they have any idea of being saved by, or in the Lord, with an everlasting, or with any salvation"—Hence they call them "Pharisaical Universalists, who are willing to justify themselves." ^*

It is difficult to say what is the present scheme of the denomination of which we are now speaking; for they differ not only from all other Universalists, and from each other, but even from themselves at differ­ent periods. The reader, however, may form an idea of some of their tenets from what follows, collected from the Letter referred to in the note. This letter, written lately, by the head of the denomination, and professing to rectify mistakes respecting doctrines propagated un­der the christian name—to give the character of a Consistent Universalist—and to acquaint the world with their rea [...] sentiments, we have reason to conclude, gives as true an account of their scheme as can be ob­tained.

From this Letter it appears, that they believe "that Religion of some sort or other, is a public benefit;" and that every person is at liberty▪ and is bound, to support what he conceives to be the true Religion—That public worship on every first day of the week, is an incumbent duty on all real lovers of divine truth—that prayer, as it indicates [...] is, and dependence on God, is part of his worship—They believe that the Deceiver, who beguiled Eve, and not our first parents themselves, did the deed which brought ruin and death on all the human race—That there are two classes of fallen sinners—the Angels who kept not their first estate, and the human nature, deceived by the former, and appar­ently destroyed consequent thereon—that a just God, in the law given by Moses, has denounced death and the curse on every one who continu­al not is all things, written in the book of the law to do them—but that the same God, was manifested in the flesh as the head of every man, made under the law, is redeem them that are under the law, being made a curse for them—that he tasted death for every man, being a Saviour, not of a few only, but of all men—and that the declaration of this is the Gospel.—They be­lieve that when God denounces on the human race, woes, wrath, tribu­lation, death, damnation, &c. in the Scriptures, he speaks in his legisla­tive capacity, as the just God who will by no means dear the guilty—that when he speaks of mercy, grace, peace▪ of life as the gift of God, and salvation in whole or in part, he speaks in the character of the [...] God and Saviour—that the former is the language of the law; the latter the language of the Gospel.

Confession of sins—Repentance, and supplications for mercy and forgiveness, make no part of their creed or worship.

They believe that the Prince of Peace came to save the human nature from the power and dominion of the Devil, and his works—that he came to destroy the latter, that he might save the former—That "Sin is the work of the Devil—that he is the Worker and Doer of what­ever gives offence"—That Jesus, as the Saviour of the world, small sep­arate [Page 266] from his kingdom, both the evil Worker and his evil works; the evil Worker, in the character of goats—The evil works in the character of tares.—They suppose that what is wicked in mankind, is represented by the evil seed sown by the evil One in human nature, and that "when the Sower of the evil seed, and all the evil seed sown, shall be separ­ated from the seed which God sowed, then the seed which is properly God's seed, will be like him who sowed it, pure and holy."

They consider all ordinances as merely shadows; yet they celebrate the Lord's Supper, by eating bread and drinking wine—and some of them suppose that every time they eat bread and drink wine, they com­ply with our Lord's injunction, "Do this in remembrance of me."—Various other opinions prevail among them respecting this ordinances, and that of baptism. They "admit of but one baptism, the baptizer Jesus Christ, the elements made use of, the Holy Ghost and fire"—yet they are willing, in order to avoid contention, "to become all things to all men" and to baptize infants by sprinkling, or adults by immersion—or to omit these signs altogether, according as the opinions of parents may vary upon this subject.—Some think it proper to dedi­cate their children to the Lord, by putting them into the arms of the minister, to be by him presented to Christ, to be baptized with his baptism, in the name of the Trinity, the minister at the same time to bless them in the words in which God commanded Aaron and his sons to bless the children of Israel—"The Lord bless thee, &c."—It appears in short, that their notions respecting these ordinances are various, vague and unsettled.

They believe in a judgment past and a judgment to come—that the past judgment is either that in which the world was judged in the second Adam, according to the word of the Saviour, " Now is the judg­ment of this world— now is the Prince of this world cast out and judgment executed on them and on the whole human nature, according is the righteous judgment of God—or that which every man is to exercise upon himself, according to the words " judge yourselves and ye shall not be judged"—"The judgment to come is that in which all who have not judged themselves—all unbelievers of the human race, and all the fallen angels, shall be judged by the Saviour—but these two characters viz. unbelievers of the human race, and the fallen angels, shall be placed, the former on the right, the latter on the left hand of their Judge; the one under the denomination of sheep, for whose salvation the Saviour laid down his life—the other under the denomination of goats, who are the accursed, whose nature he passed by—"The human nature" (i. e. the sheep or unbelievers of the human race) "as the offspring of the everlasting Father, and the ransomed of the Lord—shall be brought, by divine power, into the kingdom prepared for them, before the foundation of the world—the other nature, (i. e. the goats, or fallen angels) "will be sent into the fire prepared for them." ^* From which it appears, that it is their opinion, that unbelievers of the human race, or sheep, and the fallen angels, or goats, will be the only classes of creatures concerned in the awards of the last judgment—and that the righteous, or believers in [Page 267] Christ, will not then be judged, having previously judged themselves ^*—"But the rest of mankind," say they, "will be the subjects of this judg­ment, when our Saviour shall be revealed from heaven in flaming fire, tak­ing vengeance on them that know not God, and obey not the gospel; and they shall then be punished with everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord and the glory of his power." Their inference from, and exposition of this passage, are peculiar, and will serve to give the reader an idea of their manner of explaining other parallel passages of Scripture. From this awful revelation of the Saviour, to take vengeance on them that know not God, and obey not the gospel, they infer this consequence, "they shall then be made to know God, and obey the gospel."—The everlast­ing destruction, from the presence of the Lord and the glory of his power, with which they shall be punished, they suppose is suf­fered by unbelievers, in consequence of the revelation of the everlasting destruction, previous to this awful period—and that they will suffer no punishment after it—for "it is not said," they say, "that they shall be everlastingly punished with destruction." They explain their idea of everlasting punishment and suffering the pain of eternal fire, thus, "Were it possible to find a culinary fire that never would be extinguished, but in the strictest sense of the word, was everlasting or eternal—should any member of the body pass through that burning flame, though but a moment of time had been thus spent in passing through; yet even in that moment, it would suffer the pain of eternal fire."—But whether they believe it possible that there should be such a fire, or that unbeliev­ers shall be doomed to suffer the punishment of eternal fire by thus passing through it, they do not declare.

They do not suppose that "all mankind will be on a level in the article of death, but that they who die in unbelief, will be down in sor­row, and rise to the resurrection of damnation, or condemnation; and when the books shall be opened, and the dead, both small and great, shall be judged out of the things written in the books—every month shall be stopped, and all the world become guilty before God; and while conscious of guilt, but ignorant of a Saviour—they shall call on the rocks and mountains to fall on them to hide them from the wrath of the Lamb—But that in this judgment the judge is the Saviour—they will be judged by their own head;" and as the head of every man is Christ—all of course must be acquitted and saved.

Although the believe that the Devil is the doer or worker of every thing that gives offence; yet they assert that " all men at all times are sin­ners, and come short of the glory of God" —but they believe that [...] Christ suffered, "was considered by the Great Lawgiver, as done and suffered by every man in his own person; and that every man is as much interested in what Christ, the second Adam did, as they were in what the first Adam did"—thus believing, they consider God as just in being their Saviour, as he would have been in their eternal damnation.

The Consistent Universalist, "does not consider himself under the law any more than a woman considers herself under the di­rection or dominion of a husband that is dead and buried—nor is he afraid of death, being assured that Jesus hath abolished death, and lest nothing of it but the shadow."

[Page 268] The Universalists of this denomination, in common with other christians, profess themselves to be the advocates of piety, religion and morality.—They assert the duty of doing right as men—as members of civil society—and as christians. "As mere men" they hold, [...] "they must follow nature, or they will sink beneath the level of the beasts of the field"—and yet they assert that " all the righteousness found in the best of mere human nature is but as a filthy rag"—That as mem­bers of civil society they must submit to the laws, or if thought [...] severe, they may avoid them by a removal from the state."—That as christians they must be under the direction of Christ, and do [...] he commands them; and these are his commandments, " that we believe in him, and love one another."

There are but a few of this denomination of Universalists in the United States—Of these few, some are in Pennsylvania—some in dif­ferent parts of New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and N [...]w Hampshire; but the body of them are in Boston, and Gloucester, in Massachusetts. They have several constituted churches, which are governed by an ecclesiastical constitution, formed in 1789, by a small convention of their ministers at Philadelphia.

There is a small, and singular sect of christians, called SHAKERS, which have sprung up among us as lately as 1774; when a few of this sect came from England to New York, and there being joined by a few others, they settled at Nisqueunia, above Albany, which is th [...] principal settlement: a few others are scattered in different parts of the country.

The head of this party, while she lived. ^* was Anna Leese, styled the Elect Lady. Her followers asserted, that she was the woman spoken of in the twelfth chapter of the Revelation, and that she spoke seven­ty two tongues: And although these tongues were unintelligible to the living, she conversed with the dead who understood her language. They alledged also that she was the mother of all the Elect; that [...] travailed for the whole world—that no blessing could descend to any person but only by and through her, and that in the way of her being possessed of their sins, by their confessing and repenting of them, one by one, according to her direction.

Their leading doctrinal tenets, as given by one of their own de­nomination▪ are, "That the first resurection is already come, and now is the time to judge themselves. That they have power to heal the sick, to raise the dead and cast out devils. That they have a corres­pondence with angels, the spirits of the saints and their departed friends. That they speak with divers kind of tongues in their publick assem­blies—That it is lawful to practice vocal mufick with dancing in the christian churches, if it be practised in praising the LORD.—That their church is come out of the order of natural generation, to be as Christ was and that those who have wives are as though they had none.—That by these means heaven begins upon earth, and they thereby lose their earth­ly and sensual relation to Adam the first, and come to be transparent in their ideas, in the bright and heavenly visions of God. That some of their people are of the number of the 144,000 who were red [...] from the earth, and were not defiled with women. That the [...] everlasting, when applied to the punishment of the wicked, [...] [Page 269] only a limited period, except in the case of those who fall from their church; and that for such there is no forgiveness, neither in this world nor that which is to come. That it is unlawful to swear, game, or use compliments—and that water baptism and the Lord's Supper are a [...]otified.—That Adam's sin is not imputed to his posterity—and that the doctrines of election and reprobation are to be rejected."

The discipline of this denomination is founded on the supposed perfection of their leaders. The mother, or the Elect Lady, it is said, obeys God through Christ. European elders obey her. American la­bourers, and common people obey them; while confession is made of every secret thing, from the oldest to the youngest. The people are made to believe that they are seen through and through in the gospel glass of perfection, by their teachers, who behold the state of the dead, and innumerable worlds of spirits good and bad.

These people are generally instructed to be very industrious, and to bring in according to their ability, to keep up the meeting. They vary in their exercises. Their heavy dancing, as it is called, is performed by a perpetual springing from the house floor, about four inches up and down, both in the men's and women's apartment, moving about with extra­ordinary transport, singing sometimes one at a time, sometimes more, making a perfect charm.

This elevation affects the nerves; so that they have intervals of shuddering, as if they were in a strong fit of the ague. They some­times clap hands and leap so as to strike the joist above their heads. They throw off their outside garments in these exercises, and spend their strength very cheerfully this way. Their chief speaker often calls for attention; when they all stop and hear some harangue, and then fall to dancing again. They assert, that their dancing is the tok­en of the great joy and happiness of the new Jerusalem state, and de­notes the victory over sin. One of the postures, which increases a­mong them, is turning round very swift for an hour or two. This they say is to show the great power of God.

They sometimes fall on their knees and make a sound like the roar­ing of many waters, in groans and cries to God, as they say, for the wicked world who persecute them. ^§

The Jews are not numerous in the United States—They have Syn­agogues at Savannah, Charleston, (S. C.) Philadelphia, New-York, and New port. Besides those who reside at these places, there are oth­ers scattered in different towns, in the United States.

The Jews in Charleston, among other peculiarities in burying their dead, have these: After the funeral dirge is sung, and just before the corpse is deposited in the grave, the coffin is opened, and a small bag of [...]th, taken from the grave, is carefully put under the head of the deceased; then some powder, said to be earth brought from Jerusalem, and carefully kept for this purpose, is taken and put upon the eyes of the corpse, in token of their remembrance of the holy land, and of [...] expectations of returning thither in God's appointed time. [...]er this custom is universal among the Jews, is not known. ^‡

They generally expect a glorious return to the Holy Land, when [...] shall be exalted above all the nations of the earth. And they [Page 270] flatter themselves that the period of their return will speedily arrive, though they do not venture to fix the precise time.

The whole number of persons who profess the Jewish religion, in all parts of the world, is supposed be about three millions; who, as their phrase is, are witnesses of the unity of God in all the nations in the world.

Besides the religious sects enumerated, there are a few of the Ger­man inhabitants in Pennsylvania, who are styled SWINSEILDIANS, and, in Maryland, a small number called NICOLITES or NEW QUAKERS but with the distinguishing sentiments of these sects I am not acquaint­ed.

HISTORY.] In addition to what we have already said of the discov­ery and settlement of North America, we shall here give a brief histo­ry of the late war with Great Britain, with a sketch of the events which preceded and prepared the way for the revolution. This gen­eral view of the history of the United States, will serve as a suitable introduction to the particular histories of the several states, which will be given in their proper places.

America was originally peopled by uncivilized nations, who lived mostly by hunting and fishing. The Europeans, who first visited these shores, treating the natives as wild beasts of the forest, which have [...] property in the woods where they roam, planted the standard of their respective masters, where they first landed, and in their names claimed the country by right of discovery. ^* Prior to any settlement in North America, numerous titles of this kind were acquired by the English, French, Spanish, and Dutch navigators, who came hither for the pur­poses of fishing and trading with the natives. Slight as such cities were, they were afterwards the causes of contention between the Eu­ropean nations. The subjects of different princes often laid claim to the same tract of country, because both had discovered the same riv [...] or promontory; or because the extent of their respective claims [...] undetermined.

While the settlements in this vast uncultivated country were incon­siderable and scattered, and the trade of it confined to the bartering of a few trinkets for furs, a trade carried on by a few adventurers, the interfering of claims produced no important controversy among the settlers on the nations of Europe. But in proportion to the progress of population, and the growth of the American trade, the jealousies of the nations, which had made early discoveries and settlements on this coast, were alarmed: ancient claims were received; and each power took measures to extend and secure its own possessions at the expense of a rival.

By the treaty of Utretcht in 1713, the English claimed a right of cutting logwood in the Bay of Campeachy, in South-America. In the exercise of this right, the English merchants had frequent oppor­tunities of carrying on a contraband trade with the Spanish settle­ments on the continent. To remedy this evil, the Spaniards resolves to annihilate a claim, which though often acknowledged, had never been clearly ascertained. To effect this design they captured the En­glish vessels, which they found along the Spanish Main, and many of the British subjects were doomed to work in the mines of Potoss.

[Page 271] Repeated severities of this kind at length (1739) produced a war between England and Spain. Porto Bello was taken from the Span­iards, by Admiral Vernon. Commodore Anson, with a squadron of ships, failed to the South Seas, distressed the Spanish settlements on the western shore of America, and took a galleon laden with immense riches. But in 1741, a formidable armament, destined to attack Car­thagena, under the command of Lord Cathcart, returned unsuccessful, with the loss of upwards of twelve thousand British soldiers and sea­men; and the defeat of the expedition, raised a clamour against the minister, Sir Robert Walpole, which produced a change in the ad­ministration. This change removed the scene of war to Europe, so that America was not immediately affected by the subsequent transac­tions; except the Lou [...]sburgh, the principal fortress of Cape-Breton, was taken from the French by General Pepperell, assisted by Commo­dore Warren and a body of New-England troops ^*.

This war was ended in 1748, by the treaty of peace signed at Aix la Chapelle, by which restitution was made, on both sides, of all places taken during the war.

Peace however was of short duration. The French possessed Canada, and had made considerable settlements in Florida, claiming the country on both sides of the Missisippi, by right of discovery. To se­cure and extend their claims, they established a line of sorts, from Canada to Florida. They had secured the important pass at Niagara, and erected a fort at the junction of the Allegany and Monongahela rivers, called Fort Du Quesne. They took pains to secure the friend­ship and assistance of the natives; encroachments were made upon the English possessions, and mutual injuries succeeded. The disputes among the settlers in America, and the measures taken by the French to command all the trade of the St. Lawrence river on the north, and of the Missisippi on the south, excited a jealously in the English nation, which soon broke forth in open war.

The next year three other expeditions were undertaken in Ameri­ca against the French. One was conducted by General Monckton, who had orders to drive the French from their encroachments on the province of Nova-Scotia. This expedition was attended with success. General Johnson was ordered, with a body of troops, to take possession of Crown Point, but he did not succeed. General Shirely commanded an expedition against the fort at Niagara, but lost the season by delay.

In 1755, General Braddock marched against fort Du Quesne, but in penetrating through the wilderness, he incautiously fell into an am­buscade, and suffered a total defeat. General Braddock was killed, but the enemy not pursuing the vanquished across the river, being eager in plundering the baggage of the dead, a part of his troops were saved by slight under the conduct of General Washington, at that time a Colonel, who then began to exhibit proofs of those military talents, by which he afterwards conducted the armies of America to victory, and his country to independence.

The ill success of these expeditions, left the English settlements in America exposed to the depredations of both the French and Indians. But the war now raged in Europe and the East-Indies, and engaged the attention of both nations in those quarters.

It was not until the campaign in 1758, that affairs assumed a more favourable aspect in America. But upon a change of administration, [Page 272] Mr. Pitt was appointed prime minister, and the operations of war [...] came more vigorous and successful. General Amherst was [...] take possession of Cape Breton; and after a warm siege, the [...] of Louisburg surrendered by capitulation. General Forbes wa [...] [...] ­cessful in taking possession of fort Du Quesne, which the French thought fit to abandon. But General Abercrombie, who commanded the troops destined to act against the French at Crown Point and [...] conderoga, attacked the lines at Ticonderoga, and was defeated wi [...] a terrible slaughter of his troops. After his defeat, he returned to [...] camp at Lake George.

The next year, more effectual measures were taken to subd [...] [...] French in America. General Prideaux and Sir William Johnson be­gan the operations of the campaign by taking the French fort [...] Niagara. ^§ General Amherst took possession of the forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which the French had abandoned.

But the decisive blow, which proved fatal to the French interests by America, was the defeat of the French army, and the taking of Que­bec, by the brave General Wolfe. This hero was slain in the beginn­ing of the action on the plains of Abram, and Monsieur Montcalm, the French commander, likewise lost his life. The loss of Quebec was soon followed by the capture of Montreal, by General Amherst, and Canada has remained ever since in possession of the English.

Colonel Grant, in 1761, defeated the Cherokees in Carolina, and obliged them to sue for peace. The next year Martihico was [...] by Admiral Rodney and General Monekton; and also the island of Grenada, St. Vincents and others. The capture of these was [...] followed by the surrender of the Havanna, the capital of the island of Cuba.

In 1763, a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between Great Britain, France and Spain; by which the English ceded to the French, several islands which they had taken from them in the West Indies, but were confirmed in the possession of all North America on this side the Missisippi, except the island of Orleans.

But this war, however brilliant the successes and glorious the ev [...] proved the cause of great and unexpected misfortunes to Great Britain. Engaged with the combined powers of France and Spain, [...] several years, her exertions were surprising and her expense immensely. To discharge the debts of the nation, the parliament was obliged to [...] recourse to new expedients for raising money. Previous to the [...] treaty in 1763, the parliament had been satisfied to raise a rev [...] from the American Colonies by a monopoly of their trade.

It will be proper here to observe, that there were four kinds of government established in the British American Colonies. The first was a charter government, by which the powers of legislation were vested in a governor, council and assembly, chosen by the people. Of this kind were the governments of Connecticut and Rhode-Island. The second was a proprietary government, in which the propri [...] of the province, was governor; although he generally resided abroad and administered the government by a deputy of his own appointment; the assembly only being chosen by the people. Such were the govern­ments of Pennsylvania and Maryland; and, originally, or New Jersey and Carolina. The third kind was that of royal government, where [Page 273] the governour and council were appointed by the crown, and the as­sembly by the people. Of this kind were the governments of New-Hampshire, New-York, New-Jersey, (after the year 1702) Virginia, the Carolinas, after the resignation of the proprietors, in 1728; and Georgia. The fourth kind was that of Massachusetts, which differed [...] all the rest. The governour was appointed by the king. So far it was a royal government. But the members of the council were elect­ed by the representatives of the people. The governour, however, had a right to negative a certain number, but not to fill up vacancies th [...] occasioned. This variety of governments created different de­grees of dependence on the crown. In the royal government, to ren­der a lays valid, it was constitutionally required that it should be rat­ified by the king; but the charter governments were empowered to exact laws and no ratification by the king was necessary. It was on­ly required that such laws should not be contrary to the laws of Eng­land. The charter of Connecticut is express to this purpose.

At the beginning of the last was with France, commissioners from many of the colonies had assembled at Albany, and proposed that a great council should be formed by deputies from the several colonies, which, with a general government to be appointed by the crown, should be empowered to take measures for the common safety, and to raise money for the execution of their designs. This proposal was not relished by the British ministry; but in place of this plan, it was proposed that the governours of the colonies, with the assistance of one or two of their council, should assemble and concert measures for the general defence; erect forts, levy troops, and draw on the treasu­ry of England for monies that should be wanted; but the treasury to be reimbursed by a tax on the colonies, to be laid by the English par­liament. To this plan, which would imply an avowal of the right of parliament to tax the colonies, the provincial assemblies objected with [...] [...]en firmness. It seems therefore that the British parliament, be­fore the war, had it in contemplation to exercise the right they claimed of taxing the colonies at pleasure, without permitting them to be rep­resented. Indeed it is obvious that they laid hold of the alarming sit­uation of the colonies, about the year 1754 and 1755, to force them into an acknowledgment of the right, or to the adoption of measures that might afterwards be drawn into precedent. The colonies how­ever, with an uncommon foresight and firmness, defeated, all their at­ [...]ts▪ The war was carried on by requisitions on the colonies for [...] of men and money, or by voluntary contributions.

But no sooner was peace concluded, than the English parliament [...] the plan of taxing the colonies; and to justify their attempts, said that the money to be raised, was to be appropriated to defray the expense of defending them in the late war.

The first attempt to raise a revenue in America, appeared in the memorable stamp act, passed March 22, 1765; by which it was enacted that certain instruments of writing, as bills, bonds, &c. should not be [...] in Law, unless drawn on stamped paper, on which a duty was laid. When this bill was brought in, Mr. Charles Townsend concluded a [...]ch in its favour, with words to the following effect, "And now, [...] these Americans, children planted by our care, nourished up by [...] indulgence, till they are grown to a degree of strength and opu­ [...], and protected by our arms, will they grudge to contribute their [...] to relieve us from the heavy weight of that burden which we [Page 274] lie under?" To which Colonel Bar [...]e replied. "They planted by your care? No, your oppressions planted them in America. They fled from tyranny to a then uncultivated and unhospitable [...] where they exposed themselves to almost all the hardships to [...] human nature is liable; and among others to the cruelty of a [...] foe, the most subtle, and I will take upon me to say, the most [...] ­able of any people upon the face of God's earth; and yet, actually principles of true English liberty, they met all hardships with [...] sure, compared with those who suffered in their own country, [...] hands of those who should have been their friends. They nour [...] up by your indulgence? They grew by your neglect of them [...] soon as you began to care about them, that care was exercised in [...] ­ing persons to rule them in one department and another▪ who were per­haps the deputies of deputies to some members of the house, [...] to spy out their liberties, to misrepresent their actions and to pray up­on them.—Men, whose behaviour on many occasions, has [...] the blood of those sons of liberty to recoil within them.—Men pro­moted to the highest seats of justice, some, who to my knowledge [...] glad, by going to a foreign country, to escape being brought to [...] of a court of justice in their own.—They protected by your arms? They have nobly taken up arms in your defence, have exerted a [...] midst their constant and laborious industry, for the defence of a [...] ­try whose frontier was drenched in blood, while its interior [...] yielded all its little savings to your emolument; and believe [...] member I this day told you so, that the same spirit of freedom which [...] ­ated that people at first, will accompany them still: but prudence [...] bids me to explain myself farther. God knows, I do not at this [...] speak from any motives of party heat; what I deliver are the [...] sentiments of my heart. However superior to me in general knowledge and experience, the respectable body of this house may be, yet I [...] to know more of America than most of you, having seen and been conversant in that country. The people I believe are as truly loyal as any subjects the king has, but a people jealous of their libert [...], and who will vindicate them, if ever they should be violated: but the subject is too delicate—I will say no more."

No sooner was this act published in America, than it raised a [...] alarm. The people were filled with apprehensions at an [...] which they supposed to be an attack on their constitutional rights. The colonies petitioned the king and parliament for a redress of the [...] ­ance, and formed associations for the purpose of preventing [...] portation and use of British manufactures, until the act should be ap­pealed. This spirited and unanimous opposition of the Americans produced the desired effect; and on the 18th of March, 1766, the [...] act was repealed. The news of the repeal was received in the colo­nies with universal joy, and the trade between them and Great Britain was renewed on the most liberal footing.

The parliament, by repealing this act, so obnoxious to this Amer­ican brethren, did not intend to lay aside the scheme of raising [...] venue in the colonies, but merely to change the mode. Accordingly the next year, they passed an act, laying a certain duty on glass, [...] paper and painters colours; articles which were much wanted, and [...] manufactured, in America. This act kindled the resentment of the Americans, and excited a general opposition to the measure; so that parliament thought proper, in 1770, to take off these duties, [...] [Page 275] [...] [...] a pound on tea. Yet this duty, however trifling, kept [...] the jealousy of the colonists, and their opposition to parliament­ary taxation continued and increased.

[...] it must be remembered than the inconvenience of paying the du­ [...] not the sole, nor principal cause of the opposition; it was the [...] which, once admitted, would have subjected the colonies to [...] parliamentary taxation, without the privilege of being rep­ [...]. The right, abstractly considered, was denied; and the small­ [...] [...]pt to establish the claim by precedent, was uniformly resisted. [...] Americans could not be deceived as to the views of parliament; [...] the repeal of the stamp act was accompanied with an unequivocal [...], 'that the parliament had a right to make laws, of sufficient validity, to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.'

The colonies therefore entered into measures to encourage their own [...]tures, and home productions, and to retrench the use of for­ [...] superfluities; while the importation of tea was prohibited. In [...] and proprietary governments, and in Massachusetts, the govern­ [...] and people were in a state of continual warfare. Assemblies were [...] called, and suddenly dissolved. While sitting, the assem­ [...] employed the time in stating grievances and framing remonstran­ [...]. To inflame these discontents, an act of parliament was passed, [...]ining that the governours and judges should receive their salaries of the crown; thus making them independent of the provincial as­ [...], and removeable only at the pleasure of the king.

These arbitrary proceedings, with many others not here men­ [...], ^* could not fail of producing a rupture.

On the second of March, a fray took place in Boston, near Mr. Gray's [...], between a private soldier of the 29th regiment, and an inhabi­tant. The former was supported by his comrades, the latter by the [...]akers, till several on both sides were involved in the consequen­ces. On the fifth a more dreadful scene was presented. The soldiers, [...] under arms, were pressed upon, insulted and pelted by a mob [...] with clubs, sticks▪ and snowballs covering stones. They were [...]red to fire. In this situation, one of the soldiers who had re­ceived a blow, in resentment fired at the supposed aggressor. This [...] followed by a single discharge from six others. Three of the in­ [...]ts were killed, and five were dangerously wounded. The town [...] immediately in commotion. Such was the temper, force, and [...] of the inhabitants, that nothing but an engagement to remove [...] out of the town; together with the advice of moderate [...], prevented the townsmen from falling on the soldiers. The killed [...] buried in one vault, and in a most respectful manner, in order to [...] the indignation of the inhabitants at the slaughter of their breth­ [...] by soldiers quartered among them, in violation of their civil liber­ [...] Capt. Preston, who commanded the party which fired on the inhab­itant, was committed to jail, and afterwards tried. The captain, and fix [...], were acquitted. Two were brought in guilty of man-slaught­ [...] [...] appeared on the trial, that the soldiers were abused, insulted, [...] and pelted, before they fired. It was also proved, that [...] seven guns were fired by the eight prisoners. These circum­ [...] induced the jury to make a favourable verdict. The result of the [...] great honour on John Adams, and Josiah Quincy. Esqs. [Page 276] the council for the prisoners; and also on the integrity of the [...] who ventured to give an upright verdict, in defiance of popular [...] ­ions.

The consequences of this tragical event, sunk deep in the [...] of the people, and were made subservient to important purposes, [...] anniversary of it was observed with great solemnity for 13 years, [...] ­quent orators, were successively employed to deliver an [...] ­tion to preserve the remembrance of it fresh in their minds. [...] occasions the blessings of liberty—the horrors of slavery—the [...] of a standing army—the rights of the colonies, and a variety of [...] topics, were represented to the public view under their most [...] and alarming forms. These annual orations administered fuel [...] fire of liberty, and kept it burning, with an incessant flame. ^*

In 1773, the spirit of the Americans broke out into open vi [...]. The Gaspee, and armed schooner belonging to his Britannic [...], had been stationed at Providence, in Rhode Island, to prevent [...] ­gling. The vigilance of the commander irritated the inhabitants that degree, that about two hundred armed men entered the [...] night, compelled the officers and men to go ashore, and set fire [...] schooner. A reward of five hundred pounds, [...]ered by gover [...] for apprehending any of the persons concerned in this daring of produced no effectual discovery.

About this time, the discovery and publication of some private, con­fidential letters, written by the royal officers in Boston, to person in office in England, served to confirm the apprehensions of the A [...] ­cans, with respect to the designs of the British government. It was now made obvious that more effectual measures would be taken es­tablish the supremacy of the British Parliament over the [...]. The letters recommended decisive measures, and the writ [...] [...] charged, by the exasperated Americans, with betraying their trust and the people they governed.

As the resolutions of the colonies not to import or confirms [...] had, in a great measure, deprived the English government of a [...] ­ue from this quarter, the parliament formed a scheme of introducing tea into America, under cover of the East India Company. For by purpose an act was passed, enabling the company to export all [...] teas, duty free, to any place whatever. The company departed [...] their usual mode of doing business and became their own exp [...]. Several ships were freighted with teas, and sent to the American colonies, and factors were appointed to receive and dispose of their cargoes.

The Americans, determined to oppose the revenue system of the English parliament in every possible shape, considered the attempt of the East India Company to evade the resolutions of the colonies and dispose of teas in America, as an indirect mode of taxation, sa [...] ­ed by the authority of parliament. The people assembled in [...] places, and in the large commercial towns, took measures to [...] the landing of the teas. Committees were appointed, and armed [...] extensive powers to inspect merchants books, to propose [...] make use of other expedients to frustrate the designs of the [...] India company. The same spirit prev [...]ded the people from [...] Hampshire to Georgia. In some places, the consignees of the [...] were intimidated so far as to relinquish their appointments, [...] to enter into engagements not to act in that capacity. The cargo [...] [Page 277] south Carolina was stored, the consignees being restrained from offering the tea for sale. In other provinces, the ships returned back without discharging their cargoes.

It was otherwise in Massachusetts. The tea ships designed for the [...] of Boston, were consigned to the son, cousins and particular [...] of governour Hutchinson. When they were called upon to [...] they answered, "That is was out of their power." Then col­ [...] [...] to give a clearance, unless the vessels were discharged [...] articles. The governour refused to give a pass for the ves­sels unless properly qualified from the custom-house. The govern­ [...] likewise requested Admiral Montague to guard the passages out of the harbour and gave orders to suffer no vessels, coasters excepted, to pass the fortress, from the town, without a pass signed by himself. From a combination of these circumstances, the return of the sea ves­sels from Boston, was rendered impossible. The inhabitants then, had [...]hernative, but to prevent the landing of the tea, or to suffer it to be [...], and depend on the unanimity of the people not to purchase it, on [...] destroy the tea, or to suffer a deep laid scheme against their [...] liberties to take effect. The first would have required in­ [...] watching by night, as well as by day, for a period of time, the duration of which no one could compute. The second would have been visionary to childishness, by suspending the liberties of a gearing country, on the self denial and discretion of every sea drink­ [...] the province. They viewed the tea as a vehicle of an uncon­ [...]onal tax, and is inseparably associated with it. To avoid the one them resolved to destroy the other. About seventeen persons, dressed as Indians, repaired to the tea ships, brook open 342 chests of tea, and without doing any other damage, discharged their contents into the [...] ^*

[...] sooner did the news of this destruction of the tea reach Great [...] than the parliament determined to punish that devoted town. On the king's laying the American papers before them, a bill was [...] in and passed, to "discontinue the landing and discharging, lading and shipping of goods, wares and merchandizes at the town of Boston, or within the harbour."

This act, passed March 25, 1774, and called The Boston Port Bill, [...] the inhabitants into the greatest consternation. The town of Boston passed a resolution, expressing their sense of this oppressive measure, and a desire that all the colonies would concur to stop all importations from Great Britain. Most of the colonies entered into sp [...]ited resolutions, on this occasion, to unite with Massachusetts in a [...] opposition to the unconstitutional measures of the parliament. The first of June, the day on which the Port Bill was to take place, was appointed to be kept as a day of humiliation, fasting and prayer throughout the colonies, to seek the divine direction and aid, in that [...] and gloomy juncture of affairs.

[...]ought here to be observed, that this rational and pious custom of [...] fasts in times of distress and impending danger and of cel­ [...] days of public thanks giving, after having received special tok [...] divine favour, has ever prevailed in New England since its first [...], and in some parts of other states. These public supplica­tions and acknowledgements to heaven, at the commencement of hos­tilities, [Page 278] and during the whole progress of the war, were more [...] than usual, and were attended with uncommon servour and [...]. They were considered by the people, as an humble appeal [...] for the justness of their cause, and designed to manifest their [...] [...] ­ence on the GOD OR HOSTS for aid and success in maintainable [...] ­gainst their hostile brethren. The prayers and public disc [...] the Clergy, who were friends to their suffering country, ( [...] [...] were very few who were not) breathed the spirit of patri [...] [...] as their piety and integrity had generally secured to th [...] [...] [...] ­dence of the people, they had great influence and success in [...] aging them to engage in its defence. In this way, that cl [...] of [...] aided the cause of their country; and to their pious [...] [...] the GREAT ARBITER of human affairs, has been justly [...] inconsiderable share of the success and victory that crowned the Amer­ican arms.

During the height of the consternation and confusion which Boston Bort Bill occasioned, and at the very time when a town [...] ­ing was sitting to consider of it, General Gage, who had been [...] [...] ­ed to the government of Massachusetts, arrived in the harbour. [...] arrival, however, did not allay the popular ferment, or check th [...] [...] ­gress of the measures then taking, to unite the colonies in opposition to the oppressive acts of parliament. He was received with all the honours, usual on such occasions.

But the port bill was not the only act that alarmed the app [...] [...] ­sions of the Americans. Determined to compel the province of Mas­sachusetts to submit to their laws, parliament passed an act for [...] better regulating government in the province of Massachusetts [...]. The object of this act was to alter the government, as it stood [...] charter of king William; and to make the judges and sheriffs [...] [...] ­dent on the king, and removeable at his will and pleasure.

The act was soon followed by another, which ordained th [...] person, indicted for murder, or other capital offence committed [...] ­ing the magistrates in executing the laws, might be sent by the governour, either to any other colony, or to Great Britain, [...] ­trial.

This was soon followed by the Quebec Bill; which extend [...] bounds of that province, and granted many privileges to the [...] Catholics. The object of this bill was, to secure the attachment of that province to the crown of England, and prevent its joining the colonies in their resistance of the laws of parliament.

But these measures did not intimidate the Americans. On the [...] hand, they served to confirm their former apprehensions of that [...] designs of government, and to unite the colonies in their oppo [...]. A correspondence of opinion with respect to the unconstitutional of parliament, produced a uniformity of proceedings in the [...]. The people generally concurred in a proposition for holding [...] Con­gress, by deputation from the several colonies, in order to [...] measures for the preservation of their rights. Deputies were [...] ­ingly appointed, and met at Philadelphia, on the 26th of [...] 1774.

In this first congress, the proceedings were cool, deliberate [...] ­al; but marked with unanimity and firmness. Their first [...] declaration, or state of their claims as to the enjoyment of all [...] of British subjects, and particularly that of taxing themselves [...] [Page 279] [...]ly, and of regulating the internal police of the colonies. They also drew up a petition to the king, complaining of their grievances, and [...]ying for a repeal of the unconstitutional and oppressive acts of p [...]ent. They signed an association to suspend the importation of British goods, and the exportation of American produce, until their [...] should be redressed. They sent an address to the inhabitants of Great Britain, and another to the people of America; in the for­ [...] of which they enumerated the oppressive steps of parliament, and called on their British brethren not to aid the ministry in enslaving their American subjects; and in the latter, they endeavoured to con­ [...] the people in a spirited and unanimous determination to defend their constitutional rights.

In the mean time every thing in Massachusetts wore the appearance of opposition by force. A new council for the governour, had been appointed by the crown. New Judges were appointed and attempted to proceed in the execution of their office. But the juries refused to be [...] under them. In some counties, the people assembled to pre­vent the courts from proceeding to business; and in Berkshire they [...]ded, setting an example of resistance that has since been follow­ed in violation of the laws of the state.

In this situation of affairs, the day for the annual muster of the [...] approached. General Gage, apprehensive of some violence, had the precaution to seize the magazines of ammunition and stores at Cambridge and Charlestown, and lodged them in Boston. This mea­ [...] with the fortifying of the neck of land which joins Boston to the main land at Roxbury, caused a universal alarm and ferment.

On this occasion, an assembly of delegates from all the towns in [...]olk county, was called; and several spirited resolutions were a­ [...] [...]o. These resolutions were prefaced with a declaration of alle­giance; but they breathed a spirit of freedom that does honor to the [...]gates. They declared that the late acts of parliament, and the proceedings of General Gage, were glaring infractions of their rights and liberties, which their duty called them to defend by all lawful means.

This assembly remonstrated against the fortification of Boston Neck, and against the Quebec bill; and resolved upon a suspension of com­merce, an encouragement of arts and manufactures, the holding of a provincial congress, and a submission to the measures which should be recommended by the continental congress. They recommended that the collectors of taxes should not pay any money into the treasury▪ without further orders; they also recommended peace and good order, a [...] they meant to act merely upon the defensive.

In answer to their remonstrance, General Gage assured them that [...] had no intention to prevent the free egress and regress of the in­habitants to and from the town of Boston, and that he would not suf­fer any person under his command to injure the person or property of any of his majesty's subjects.

[...]vious to this, a general assembly had been summoned by the [...] to meet at S [...]lem; and notwithstanding the writs had been [...]ermanded by the governour's proclamation, on account of the vi­ [...] of the times, and the resignation of several of the new coun­ [...], yet in defiance of the proclamation, 90 of the newly elected▪ members met at the time and place appointed; and soon after resolved themselves into a Provincial Congress and adjourned to Concord, 19 [Page 280] miles from Boston, and after choosing Mr. Hancock president, pro­ceeded to business.

This congress addressed the governour with a rehearsal of their dis­tresses, and took the necessary steps for defending their rights. They regulated the militia, made provision for supplying the treasury, and furnishing the people with arms; and such was the enthusiasm and union of the people, that the recommendations of the provincial con­gress had the force of laws.

General Gage was incensed at these measures. He declared in [...] answer to the address, that Britain could never harbour the black [...] ­sign of enslaving her subjects, and published a proclamation, in which he insinuated that such proceedings amounted to rebellion. He [...] ordered barracks to be erected for the soldiers; but he found differently in procuring labourers, either in Boston or New York.

In the beginning of 1775, the fishery bills were passed in parliament, by which the colonies were prohibited to trade with Great Britain, Ireland or the West Indies, or to take fish on the banks of Newfoundland.

In the distresses to which these acts of parliament reduced the [...] of Boston, the unanimity of the colonies was remarkable, in the large supplies of provision furnished by the inhabitants of different [...], from New Hampshire to Georgia, and shipped to the relief of the suf­ferers.

Preparations began to be made, to oppose by force, the execution of these acts of parliament. The militia of the country were trained [...] the use of arms—great encouragement was given for the manufacture of gunpowder, and measures were taken to obtain all kinds of [...] stores.

In February, Colonel Leflie was sent with a detachment of [...] from Boston, to take possession of some cannon at Salem. But the people had intelligence of the design—took up the draw bridge in that town, and prevented the troops from passing, until the [...] wore secured; so that the expedition failed.

Provisions and military stores were also collected and stored in different places, particularly at Concord. General Gage, though zealous for his royal master's interest, discovered a prevailing [...] after a peaceable accommodation. He wished to prevent hostilities, by depriving the inhabitants of the means necessary for carrying them on. With this view, ^* he determined [...] destroy the stores which he knew were collected for the support of a provincial army; and wishing to accomplish this without bloodshed, he took every precaution to effect it by surprise, and without alarming the country. At eleven o'clock at night 800 grenadiers and light infantry, the flower of the royal army, embarked at the Common, landed at Leechmore's Point and marched for Concord, under the command of lieutenant colonel Smith. Neither the secrecy with which this expedition was planned—the privacy [...] which the troops marched out, nor an order that no inhabitants should leave Boston, were sufficient to prevent intelligence from ly­ing sent to the country militia▪ of what was going on. About [...] in the morning, 130 of the Lexington militia had assembled to oppose them, but the air being chilly, and intelligence respecting the [...] uncertain, they were dismissed, with orders to appear again at the [Page 281] [...]ent of drum. They collected a second time, to the number of 70, between 4 and 5 o'clock in the morning, and the British regulars soon after made their appearance. Major Pitcairn, who led the ad­vanced corps, rode up to them and called out, "Disperse you rebels, th [...]w down your arms and disperse." They still continued in a body, on which he advanced nearer—discharged his pistol—and ordered his soldiers to fire. A dispersion of the militia was the consequence, but the firing of the regulars was nevertheless continued. Individuals find­ing they were fired upon, though dispersing, returned the fire. Three or four of the militia were killed on the green. A few more were shot after they had begun to disperse. The royal detachment proceeded on to Concord, and executed their commission. They disabled two 24 pounders—throw 500lb of ball into rivers and wells, and broke in pieces about 60 barrels of flour. Mr. John Buterick, major of a minute regiment, [...] knowing what had passed at Lexington, ordered his men not to [...] the first fire, that they might not be the aggressors. Upon his ap­pe [...]ching near the regulars, they fired, and killed captain Isaac Davis, and one private of the provincial minute men. The fire was re­turned, and a skirmish ensued. The king's troops having done their business, began their retreat towards Boston. This was conducted with expedition, for the adjacent inhabitants had assembled in arms and began to attack them in every direction. In their return to Lex­ington they were exceedingly annoyed, both by those who pressed on their rear, and others who poured in from all sides, firing from behind [...] walls, and such like coverts, which supplied the place of lines and redoubts. At Lexington the regulars were joined by a detach­ment of 900 men under lord Piercy, which had been sent out by general Gage to support lieutenant colonel Smith. This reinforce­ment, having two pieces of cannon, awed the provincials, and kept them at a greater distance; but they continued a constant, though ir­regular and scattering fire, which did great execution. The close fir­ing from behind the walls by good marksmen, put the regular troops in no small confusion, but they nevertheless kept up a brisk retreating [...] on the militia and minute men. A little after sunset the regulars [...]ched Bunkers-hill, worn down with excessive fatigue, having [...] h [...]d that day between thirty and forty miles. On the next day they crossed Charlestown ferry, to Boston.

There never were more than 400 provincials engaged at one time, and often not so many. As some tired and gave out, others came up and took their places. There was scarcely any discipline observed a­mong them. Officers and privates fired when they were ready and saw a royal uniform, without waiting for the word of command. [...] knowledge of the country enabled them to gain opportunities, by crossing fields and fences, and to act as flanking parties against the king's troops, who kept to the main road.

The regulars had 65 killed, 174 wounded, and 24 made prisoners. Of the provincials 49 were killed, and 39 wounded and missing.

Here was spilt the first blood in the late war; a war which severed America from the British empire. Lexington opened the first scene to this great drama, which, in its progress, exhibited the most illustrious characters and events, and closed with a revolution, equally glorious [...] the actors, and important in its consequences to mankind.

This battle roused all America. The Provincial Congress of Massa­chusetts being at this time in session, voted that "An army of 30,000 [Page 282] men be immediately raised; that 13,600 be of their own province, and that a letter and delegate be sent to the several colonies of New Hamp­shire, Connecticut and Rhode Island." The militia collected from all quarters, and Boston, in a few days, was besieged by twenty thousand men. A stop was put to all intercourse between the town and coun­try, and the inhabitants were reduced to great want of provis [...] General Gage promised to let the people depart, if they would de [...] ­er up their arms. The people complied; but when the general had obtained their arms, the perfidious man, [...]refused to lot the people go.

This breach of faith, and the consequences that attended it, were justly and greatly complained of; and although many, at dif [...] times, were permitted to leave the town, they were obliged to heart all their effects behind; so that many who had been used to live i [...] case and affluence, were at once reduced to extreme indigence and misery. A circumstance peculiarly and wantonly aggravating, and which was the ground of the bitterest complaints of congress, was, that passports were granted and retained in such a manner, as that families were broken▪ and the dearest connections separated; part being com­pelled to quit the town, and part cruelly retained against their incli­nation.

About the latter end of May a great part of the reinforcements or­dered from Great Britain, arrived at Boston. Three British genera [...] Howe, Burgoyne and Clinton, whose behaviour in the preceding war had gained them great reputation, also arrived about the same time. General Gage, thus reinforced, prepared for acting with more deci [...], but before he proceeded to extremities, he conceived it due to ancient forms to issue a proclamation, holding forth to the inhabitants the alter­native of peace or war. He therefore offered pardon in the king's name, to all who should forthwith lay down their arms, and return to their respective occupations and peaceable duties, excepting only from the benefit of that pardon "Samuel Adams, and John Hancock," who [...] offences were said to be "of too flagitious a nature to admit of any oth­er consideration than that of condign punishment." He also pro­claimed, that not only the persons above named and excepted, but also all their adherents, associates and correspondents, should be deemed guilty of treason and rebellion, and treated accordingly. By this pro­clamation it was also declared "that as the courts of judicature were shut, martial law should take place, till a due course of justice should be re-established." It was supposed that this proclamation was a pre­lude to hostilities, and preparations were accordingly made by the A­mericans. The heights of Charlestown, were so situated as to make the possession of them a matter of great consequence, to either of the contending parties. Orders were therefore issued, June 16th, by the provincial commanders, that a detachment of a thousand men should intrench upon Breed's-hill. ^* Here the Americans, between midnight and morning, with uncommon expedition and silence, threw up a small redoubt, which the British did not discover till the morning of the 17th, when they began an incessant firing and continued it till afternoon. With the intrepidity of veteran soldiers the Americans bore this [...], and proceeded to finish their redoubt, and to throw up a breast-work, extending eastward of it to the bottom of the hill. About noon gen­eral Gage detached Major General Howe, and brigadier general [...] ­got, with the flower of his army, in two detachments, amounting in the whole to nearly 3000 men.—They landed at a point about 150 or [Page 283] 200 rods S. E. of the redoubt, and deliberately prepared for the attack. While the troops, who first landed, were waiting for a reinforcement, the Americans on the left wing, towards Mystic river, for their securi­ty, pulled up some adjoining post and rail fence, and set it down in two parallel lines, near each other, and filled the space between with hay, which the day before was mowed and remained in the adjacent field. The British troops, in the mean time, formed in two lines, and about [...]o'clock, advanced slowly towards the Americans. The hills and [...]ples in Boston, and the circumjacent country, were crowded with [...] spectators of the dubious conflict. While some felt for the honour of British troops, multitudes, with a keener sensibility, felt for the liberties of a great and growing country. The attack com­men [...]d on the part of the British troops. The Americans had the precaution to reserve their fire, till their enemies had approached within 10 or 12 rods of their works. They then began a well directed and furious discharge of small arms, which mowed down their enemies in ranks, and occasioned a disorderly and precipitate retreat. Their [...] rallied them with difficulty, and pushed them forward with their swords, to a second attack. They were, in the same manner put [...] slight a second time. With still greater difficulty they were forced by General Howe, to a third attack. By this time the powder of the Americans began to fail, and their redoubt was attacked on two sides. Under these circumstances, a retreat was ordered; the left wing of the Americans, N. E. of the redoubt, still continuing their fire, igno­rant of what had taken place on the right, till the British had nearly surrounded them. The retreat was effected, with an inconsiderable [...], considering the greater part of the distance they had to pass was completely exposed to the incessant fire of the Glasgow man of war and two floating batteries.

During the heat of this bloody action, by order of General Gage, Charlestown was [...]et on fire, by a battery on Cop [...]-Hill, in Boston, and a party from the Somerset man of war, lying in Charles river, and nearly 400 houses, including [...]ix public buildings, were consumed, with their furniture, &c. valued by 19 men, under oath, at £ [...]6,900, specie; and 2000 persons reduced from affluence and mediocrity, to [...] most aggravated poverty and exile. ^*

The number of Americans engaged in this memorable action, a­mounted to 1500 only. There have been few battles in modern wars in which, all circumstances considered, there was a greater slaughter of men than in this short engagement. The loss of the British, as acknowledged by General Gage, amounted to 1054 men. Nineteen commissioned officers were killed and 70 wounded. The loss of the Americans was 77 killed—278 wounded and missing.

The death of Major General Warren, who four days before had received his commission, and who, having had no command assigned him, sought this day as a volunteer, was particularly and greatly la­mented. "To the purest patriotism, and the most undaunted bravery, [...]e added the virtues of domestic life, the eloquence of an accomplish­ed orator, and the wisdom of an able statesman."

[Page 284] About this time a scheme was laid by a number of gentlemen in Connecticut, to take possession of Ticonder [...]ga, where a great quanti­ty of military stores were lodged, and which is the key to Canada. Having made the necessary preparations, and collected 270 men, chief­ly Green Mountain [...]oy [...], they rendezvoused at Castleton, where they [...] joined by Col. Allen, and shortly after by Col. Arnold from Cambridge, under commission from the Provincial Congress. Col. Allen command­ed this volunteer party. Having arrived at Lake Champlain, opposite Ticonderoga, in the night, Cols. Allen and Arnold, with 83 men, cross­ed over, and at the dawn of day entered the fort, without resistance, and called upon the commander, who was in bed, to surrender the [...]. He asked by what authority? Col. Allen replied—I demand it i [...] the name of the Great Jehovah and of the Continental Congress."—Thus the fort was captured, with its valuable stores and 43 prisoners. Crown Point was taken at the same time, by Col. Warren, and pos­session obtained of all Lake Champlain, in the course of a few days, by a few determined man.

On the 15th of June, two days before the memorable battle on Breeds Hill, the Continental Congress unanimously appointed George Washington, Esq ^*; a native o [...] Virginia, to the chief command of [Page 285] the American army. This gentleman had been a distinguished and suc­cessful officer in the preceding war, and seemed destined by heaven to be the saviour of his country. He accepted the appointment with a diffidence which was a proof of his modesty, his prudence and his greatness; and by his matchless skill, fortitude and perseverance, con­ducted America through indescribable difficulties, to independence and peace.

General Washington, with other officers appointed by congress, arrived at Cambridge, and took command of the American army in July. From this time, the affairs of America began to assume the ap­pearance of a regular and general opposition to the forces of Great Britain.

In Autumn, a body of troops, under the command of General Montgomery, besieged and took the garrison at St. John's, which commands the entrance into Canada. The prisoners amounted to [Page 286] about seven hundred. General Montgomery pursued his success, and took Montreal; and designed to push his victories to Quebec.

A body of troops, commanded by General Arnold, was ordered to march to Canada, by the river Kennebek, and through the wilderness. After suffering every hardship, and the most distressing hunger, they arrived in Canada, and were joined by General Montgomery, before Quebec. This city, which was commanded by Governor Carle [...], was immediately besieged. But there being little hope of taking the town by a siege, it was determined to storm it.

The garrison of Quebec, at this time, consisted of about 1520 m [...]n, of which 800 were militia. The American army consisted of [...] men. General Montgomery having divided his little army into [...] detachments, ordered two feints to be made against the upper town, one by Colonel Livingston, at the head of the Canadians, against St. John's Gate; the other by Major Brown against Cape Diamond; [...] ­serving to himself and Col. Arnold, the two principal attacks against the lower town. At 5 oclock in the morning, General Montgomery advanced against the lower town. He passed the first barrier, and was just opening to attack the second, when he was killed, together with his Aid-de-camp, Capt. M [...]Pherson. This so dispirited the men, that Col. Campbell, on whom the command devolved, thought proper to draw them off. In the mean time Col. Arnold, with 350 men, made a successful attack on another part of the town. In the attack of the first battery Col. Arnold was wounded, and was obliged to be carried off the field of battle. His party, however, commanded by Capt. Morgan of Virginia, proceeded, and entered the town; but not be­ing joined by the other parties, was obliged to surrender to superior force.

The loss of the Americans in killed and wounded▪ was about [...] and 300 were taken prisoners. Historians will do justice to the bra [...] ­ry of the Provincial troops on this occasion.

After the defeat, Col. Arnold, who now commanded the troops, continued some months before Quebec, although his troops were reduced in numbers, and suffered incredibly from cold and sick­ness.

The death of General Montgomery was greatly and sincerely regret­ted on both sides. "His many amiable qualities had procured him an uncommon share of private affection, and his great abilities, an equal proportion of public esteem. His name was mentioned in par­liament with singular respect. The Minister himself acknowledged his worth, while he reprobated the cause in which he fell. He con­cluded an involuntary panegyric, by saying, "Curse on his virtues, they have undone his country." ^*

[Page 287] About this time, the large and flourishing town of Norfolk in Vir­ginia, was wantonly burnt by order of lord Dunmore, the then royal governour of that province.

General Gage went to England in September, and was succeeded in the command, by General Howe.

Falmouth, a considerable town in the province of Main in Massa­chusetts, shared the fate of Norfolk; being laid in ashes by order of the British admiral.

The British king entered into treaties with some of the German Prin­ces for about fourteen thousand men, who were to be sent to America the next year, to assist in subduing the colonies. The parliament also passed an act, forbidding all intercourse with America; and while they repealed the Boston port and fishery bills, they declared all American property on the high seas, forfeited to the captors.

Measures were taken to annoy the enemy in Boston. For this pur­pose, batteries were opened on several hills, from whence shot and bombs were thrown into the town. But the batteries which were open­ed on Dorchester point had the best effect, and soon obliged General Howe to abandon the town. In March 1776 the British troops em­barked for Halifax, and General Washington entered Boston in tri­umph.

In the ensuing summer, a small squadron of ships commanded by Six Peter Parker, and a body of troops under the Generals Clinton and Cornwallis, attempted to take Charleston, the capital of South Carolina. The ships made a violent attack upon the fort on Sullivan's Island, but were repulsed with great loss, and the expedition was aban­doned.

In July, Congress published their declaration of independence, which separated America from Great Britain. This great event took place two hundred and eighty four years after the the discovery of A­merica by Columbus—one hundred and sixty six, from the first effect­ual settlement in Virginia, and one hundred and fifty six from the first settlement of Plymouth in Massachusetts, which were the earliest Eng­lish settlements in America.

Just after this declaration, General Howe, with a powerful force, arrived near New York; and landed his troops on Staten Island. General Washington was in New-York with about thirteen thousand men, who were encamped either in the city or the neighbouring forti­fications.

The operations of the British began by the action on Long Island, in the month of August. The American Generals Sullivan and Lord Sterling, with a large body of men, were made prisoners. The night after the engagement, a retreat was ordered and executed with such silence, that the Americans left the island without alarming their ene­mies, and without loss.

In September, the city of New York was abandoned by the Amer­ican army, and taken by the British.

In November, Fort Washington on York Island was taken, and more than two thousand Americans made prisoners. Fort Lee▪ oppo­site to Fort Washington, on the Jersey shore, was soon after taken, but the garrison escaped.

About the same time, General Clinton was sent with a body of troops to take possession of Rhode Island; and succeeded. In addition to all these losses and defeats, the American army suffered [Page 288] by desertion, and more by sickness, which was epidemic, and very mortal.

The northern army at Ticonderoga, was in a disagreeable situation, particularly▪ after the battle on Lake Champlain, in which the Amer­ican force, consisting of a few l [...]ght vessels, under the command of gen­erals Arnold and Waterbury, was totally dispersed. But General Carleton, instead of pursuing his victory, landed at Crown Point, [...] ­connoitered our posts at Ticonderoga and Mount Independence, and returned to winter quarters in Canada.

The American army might now be said to be no more. All that now remained of an army, which at the opening of the campaign, a­mounted to at least twenty five thousand men, did not now exceed [...] thousand. The term of their engagements being expired, they return­ed, in large bodies, to their families and friends; the few, who, from personal attachment, local circumstances, or superior perseverance and bravery, continued with the Generals Washington and Lee, were [...] inconsiderable to appear formidable in the view of a powerful and victorious enemy.

In this alarming and critical situation of affairs, General Lee, through an imprudent carelessness, which ill became a man in his im­portant station, was captured by a party of British light horse▪ com­manded by Col. Harcourt. This unfortunate circumstance gave a se­vere shock to the remaining hopes of the little army, and rendered their situation truly distressing.

While these things were transacting in New Jersey, General Wash­ington, far from being discouraged by the loss of General Lee, and always ready to improve every advantage to raise the drooping spirits of his handful of men, had made a stand on the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware. He collected his scattered forces, called in the assistance of the Pennsylvania militia, and on the night of the 25th of December (1776) when the enemy were lulled into security by the idea of his weakness, and by the inclemency of the night, which was re­markably boisterous, as well as by the fumes of a Christmas eve, [...]e crossed the river, and at the breaking of day, marched down to T [...] ­ton, and so completely surprised them, that the greater part of the de­tachment which were stationed at this place, surrendered after a short resistance. The horsemen and a few others made their escape at the opposite end of the town. Upwards of nine hundred Hessians were taken prisoners at this time.

The address in planning and executing this enterprize, reflected the highest honour on the commander, and the success revived the des­ponding hopes of America. The loss of General Mercer, a gallant officer, at Princeton, was the principal circumstance that allayed the joys of victory.

The following year, 1777, was distinguished by very memorable e­vents, infavour of America. On the opening of the campaign, govern­our Tryon was sent with a body of troops to destroy the stores at D [...] ­bury in Connecticut. This plan was executed, and the town mostly burnt. The enemy suffered in their retreat, and the American▪ lost General Wooster, a brave and experienced officer.

General Prescot was taken from his quarters, on Rhode Island, by the address and enterprize of Col. Barton, and conveyed prisoner to the continent.

[Page 289] General Burgoyne, who commanded the northern British army, took possession of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Americans. He pushed his successes, crossed Lake George, and en­camped upon the banks of the Hudson, near Saratoga. His progress however was checked, by the defeat of Col. Baum, near Bennington, in which the undisciplined militia, under General Stark, displayed un­exampled bravery, and captured almost the whole detachment. The militia assembled from all parts of New England, to stop the progress of General Burgoyne.

These, with the regular troops, formed a respectable army, commanded by General Gates. After two severe actions, in which the Generals Lincoln and Arnold, behaved with uncommon gallantry, and were wounded, General Burgoyne found himself enclosed with brave troops, and was forced to surrender his whole army, amounting to five thou­sand seven hundred and fifty-two men, into the hands of the Ameri­cans. ^* This memorable event happened on the 17th of October, 1777: and diffused an universal joy over America, and laid a foundation for the treaty with France.

But before these transactions, the main body of the British forces had embarked at New York, sailed up the Chesapeek, and landed at the head of Elk river. The army soon began their march for Phila­delphia. General Washington had determined to oppose them, and for this purpose made a stand, first at Red Clay Creek, and then upon the heights, near Brandy wine Creek. Here the armies engaged, and the Americans were overpowered, and suffered great loss. The ene­my soon pursued their march, and took possession of Philadelphia, to­wards the close of September.

Not long after, the two armies were again engaged at Germantown, and in the beginning of the action, the Americans had the advantage; but by some unlucky accident. The fortune of the day was turned in favour of the British. Both sides suffered considerable losses; on the side of the Americans, was General Nash.

In an attack upon the forts at Mud-Island and Red Bank, the Hes­sians were unsuccessful, and their commander, Col. Donop, killed. The British also lost the Augusta, a ship of the line. But the forts were afterwards taken, and the navigation of the Delaware opened. General Washington was reinforced, with a part of the troops, which had composed the northern army, under General Gates; and both ar­mies retired to winter quarters.

In October, the same month in which General Burgoyne was taken at Saratoga, General Vaughan, with a small fleet, sailed up Hudson's river, and wantonly burnt Kingston, a beautiful Dutch settlement, on the west side of the river.

The beginning of the next year, 1778, was distinguished by a treaty of alliance between France and America; by which we obtained a powerful and generous ally. When the English ministry were in­formed that this treaty was on foot, they dispatched commissioners to America, to attempt a reconciliation. But America would not now accept their offers. Early in the spring, Count de Estaing, with a fleet of fifteen sail of the line, was sent by the court of France to assist America.

General Howe left the army, and returned to England; the com­mand then devolved upon Sir Henry Clinton.

[Page 290] In June the British army left Philadelphia, and marched for New York. On their march they were annoyed by the Americans; and at Monmouth, a very regular action took place, between part of the armies; the enemy were repulsed with great loss. General Lee, for his misconduct that day, was suspended, and was never after­wards permitted to join the army.

General Lee's conduct, at several times before this, had been very suspicious. In December 1776, he lay at Chatham, about eleven miles from Elizabeth Town, with a brigade of troops, when a great quan­tity of baggage was stored at Elizabeth Town, under a guard of only five hundred Hessians. General Lee was apprised of this, and might have surprised the guard and taken the baggage. But he neglected the op­portunity, and after several marches and counter marches between Troy, Chatham and Morris Town, he took up his quarters at, or near White's tavern, where he was surprised and taken prisoner by a party of the British horse. He was heard to say repeatedly, that General Washington would ruin a fine army. It was suspected that he had designs to supplant the General, and his friends attempted to place him at the head of the army. General Washington's prudent delays, and cautious movements, afforded General Lee's friends many opportuni­ties to spread reports unfavourable to his character. It was insinuat­ed, with some success, that General Washington wanted courage and abilities. Reports of this kind, at one time, rendered General Lee very popular, and it is supposed he wished to frustrate rate General Washing­ton's plans, in order to increase the suspicions already entertained of his generalship, and turn the public clamour in his own favour. His conduct at Monmouth, was, by some, supposed to have proceeded from such a design; for he commanded the flower of the Ameri­can army, and was not destitute of courage.

In August, General Sullivan, with a large body of troops, attempted to take possession of Rhode Island, but did not succeed. Soon after, the stores and shipping at Bedford in Massachusetts, were burnt by a party of the British troops. The same year, Savannah, the capital of Georgia, was taken by the British, under the command of Colonel Campbell.

In the following year (1779) General Lincoln was appointed to the command of the southern army.

Governour Tryon and Sir George Collier made an incursion into Connecticut, and burnt, with wanton barbarity, the towns of Fairfield and Norwask. But the American arms were crowned with success, in a bold attack upon Stoney Point, which was sur­prized and taken by the brave General Wayne, in the night of the 15th of July. Five hundred men were made prisoners, with little loss on either side.

A party of British forces attempted this summer, to build a fort on Penobscot river, for the purpose of cutting timber in the neigh­bouring forest. A plan was laid in Massachusetts to dislodge them and a considerable fleet collected for the purpose. But the plan [...]ail­ed of success, and the whole marine force fell into the hands of the British, except some vessels which were burnt by the Americans them­selves.

In October, General Lincoln and Count de Estaing made an assault upon Savannah; but they were repulsed with considerable loss. In [Page 291] this action, the celebrated Polish Count Pulaski, who had acquired the reputation of a brave soldier, was mortally wounded.

In this summer, General Sullivan marched with a body of troops, into the Indian country, in the western part of New York State, and burnt and destroyed all their provisions and settlements that fell in their way.

On the opening of the campaign, the next year, (1780) the British troops left Rhode Island. All expedition under General Clinton and Lord Cornwallis, was undertaken against Charleston, South Carolina, where General Lincoln commanded. This town, after a close siege of about six weeks, was surrendered to the British commander; and General Lincoln, and the whole American garrison, were made prisoners.

General Gates was appointed to the command in the southern de­partment, and another army collected. In August, Lord Cornwallis attacked the American troops at Camden, in South Carolina, and rout­ed them with considerable loss. He afterwards marched through the southern states, and supposed them entirely subdued.

The same summer, the British troops made frequent incursions from New York into the Jersies; ravaging and plundering the country.

In July, a French fleet, under Monsieur d'Ternay, with a body of land forces, commanded by Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode­Island, to the great joy of the Americans.

This year was also distinguished by the infamous treason of Gen­eral Arnold. General Washington having some business to transact at Weathersfield in Connecticut, left Arnold to command the impor­tant post of West Point; which guards a pass in Hudson's river, about sixty miles from New York. Arnold's conduct in the city of Philadelphia, the preceding winter, had been censured; and the treatment he received in consequence, had given him offence.

He determined to take revenge; and for this purpose, he entered into a negociation with Sir Henry Clinton, to deliver West Point, and the army, into the hands of the British. While General Wash­ington was absent, he dismounted the cannon in some of the forts, and took other steps to render the taking of the post easy for the ene­my.

But by a providential discovery, the whole plan was defeated. Ma­jor Andre, aid to General Clinton, a brave officer, who had been sent up the river as a spy, to concert the plan of operations with Arnold, was taken, condemned by a court martial, and executed. Arnold made his escape, by getting on board the Vulture, a British vessel which lay in the river. His conduct has stamped him with infamy; and like all traitors, he is despised by all mankind. The name of Bene­dict Arnold has become proverbially contemptible. General Wash­ington arrived in camp just after Arnold made his escape, and restor­ed order in the garrison.

After the defeat of General Gates in Carolina, General Greene was appointed to command in the southern department. ^† From this [Page 292] period, things in that quarter wore a more favourable aspect. Colonel Tarleton, the active commander of the British legion, was defeated by General Morgan, the intrepid commander of the riflemen.

After a variety of movements the two armies met at Guilford, in Carolina. Here was one of the best fought actions during the w [...] General Greene and Lord Cornwallis exerted themselves at the head of their respective armies; and although the Americans were obliged to retire from the field, yet the British army suffered an immense loss, and could not pursue the victory. The action happened on the 15th March, 1781.

In the spring, Arnold, the traitor, who was made a Brigadier Gen­eral in the British service, with a small number of troops, sailed for Virginia, and plundered the country. This called the attention of the French fleet to that quarter, and a naval engagement took place be­tween the English and French, in which some of the English ships were much damaged, and one entirely disabled.

After the battle of Guilford, General Greene moved towards South Carolina, to drive the British from their posts in that state. Here Lord Rawdon obtained an inconsiderable advantage over the Ameri­cans near Camden. But General Greene more than recovered this disadvantage, by the brilliant and successful action at the Eutaw Springs; where General Marian distinguished himself, and the brave Col. Washington was wounded and taken prisoner.

Lord Cornwallis, finding General Greene successful in Carolina, marched to Virginia collected his forces, and fortified himself in York­town. In the mean time Arnold made an incursion into Connecticut, burnt a part of New London, took Fort Griswold by storm, and put the garrison to the sword. The garrison consisted chiefly of men col­lected from the little town of Groton, which, by the savage cruelty of the British officer who commanded the attack, lost, in one hour, al­most all its heads of families. The brave Col. Ledyard, who com­manded the fort, was slain with his own sword after he had surrender­ed.

The Marquis de la Fayette, ^* the brave and generous nobleman, [Page 293] whose services command the gratitude of every American, had been dispatched with about two thousand light infantry, from the main ar­my, to watch the motions of Lord Cornwallis in Virginia. He prose­cuted this expedition with the greatest military ability. Although his force was much inferior to that of the enemy he obliged them to leave Richmond and Williamsburgh, and to seek protection under their shipping.

About the last of August, Count de Grasse arrived in the Chesapeek and blocked up the British troops at Yorktown. Admiral Greaves, with a British fleet, appeared off the Capes, and an action succeeded; but it was not decisive.

General Washington had before this time moved the main body of his army, together with the French troops, to the southward; and as soon as he heard of the arrival of the French fleet in the Chesaspeek, he made rapid marches to the head of Elk, where embarking, the troops soon arrived at Yorktown.

A close siege immediately commenced, and was carried on with such vigour, by the combined forces of America and France, that lord Cornwallis was obliged to surrender. This glorious event, which took place on the 19th of October, 1781, decided the contest in favour of America; and laid the foundation of a general peace.

A few months after the surrender of Cornwallis, the British evac­uated all their posts in South Carolina and Georgia and retired to the main army in New York.

The next spring (1782) Sir Guy Carleton arrived in New York, and took the command of the British army in America. Immediate­ly on his arrival, he acquainted General Washington and Congress, that negociations for peace had commenced at Paris.

[Page 294] On the 30th of November, 1782, the provisional articles of peace, and reconciliation, between Great Britain and the American States, were signed at Paris; by which Great Britain acknowledged the inde­pendence and sovereignty of the United States of America. These articles were ratified by a definitive treaty, September 3d, 1783. This peace was negociated on the part of Great Britain by David Hartley, Esq: and on the part of the United States by John Adams, John Jay, ^† and Benjamin Franklin, ^* Esquires.

[Page 295] Thus ended a long and arduous conflict, in which Great Britain ex­pended near an hundred millions of money, with an hundred thousand lives, and won nothing. America endured every cruelty and distress from her enemies; lost many lives and much treasure; but delivered herself from a foreign dominion, and gained a rank among the nations of the earth.

Holland acknowledged the independence of the United States on the 19th of April 1782; Sweden, February 5th 1783; Denmark the 25th of February; Spain, in March, and Russia in July 1783.

No sooner was peace restored by the definitive treaty, and the Brit­ish troops withdrawn from the country, than the United States began to experience the defects of their general government. While an en­emy was in the country, fear, which had first impelled the colonies to associate in mutual defence, continued to operate as a band of politi­cal union. It gave to the resolutions and recommendations of Congress the force of laws, and generally commanded a ready acquiescence on the part of the state legislatures. Articles of confederation and per­petual union had been framed in Congress, and submitted to the con­sideration of the states, in the year 1778. Some of the states imme­diately acceded to them; but others, which had not unappropriated lands, hesitated to subscribe a compact, which would give an advan­tage to the states which possessed large tracts of unlocated lands, and were thus capable of a great superiority in wealth and population. All objections however had been overcome, and by the accession of Maryland in March 1781, the articles of confederation were ratified, as the frame of government for the United States.

These articles however were framed during the rage of war, when a principle of common safety supplied the place of a coercive power in government; by men who could have had no experience in the art of governing an extensive country, and under circumstances the most critical and embarrassing. To have offered to the people, at that time, a system of government armed with the powers necessary to reg­ulate and control the contending interests of thirteen States, and the possessions of millions of people, might have raised a jealousy between the states or in the minds of the people at large, that would have [Page 296] weakened the operations of war, and perhaps have rendered a [...] impracticable▪ Hence the numerous defects of the confederation.

On the conclusion of peace, these defects began to be felt. Each state assumed the right of disputing the propriety of the resolutions of Congress, and the interest of an individual state was placed in oppo­sition to the common interest of the union. In addition to this sour [...] of division, a jealousy of the powers of Congress began to [...]e excited in the minds of people.

The jealousy of the privileges of freemen, had been roused by the oppressive act of the British parliament; and no sooner had the dan­ger from this quarter ceased, than the fears of people changed their object, and were turned against their own rulers.

In this situation, there were not wanting men of industry and tal­ents, who had been enemies to the revolution, and who embraced the opportunity to multiply the apprehensions of people and encrease the popular discontents. A remarkable instance of this happened in Con­necticut. As soon as the tumults of war had subsided, an attempt was made to convince the people, that the act of Congress passed in 1778, granting to the officers of the army, half play for life, was high­ly unjust and tyrannical; and that it was but the first step towards the establishment of pensions and an uncontrolable desp tism. The act of Congress, passed in 1783▪ commuting half pay for life, for five years full pay, was designed to appease the apprehensions of people, and to convince them that this gratuity was intended merely to in­demnify the officers for their losses by the depreciation of the paper currency, and not to establish a precedent for the granting of pensions. This act however did not satisfy the people, who supposed that the of­ficers had been generally indemnified for the loss of their pay, by the grants made them from time to time by the legislatures of the several states. Besides, the act while it gave five years full pay to the offi­cers, allowed but one years pay to the privates: a distinction which had great influence in exciting and continuing the popular ferment▪ and one that turned a large share of the public rage against the offi­cers themselves.

The moment an alarm was raised respecting this act of Congress, them enemies of our independence became active in blowing up the flame, by spreading reports unfavourable to the general government and tending to create public dissentions.—Newspapers, in some parts of the country, were filled with inflammatory publications; while false reports and groundless insinuations were industriously circulated to the prejudice of Congress and the officers of the late army. Among a people feelingly above to every thing that could affect the rights for which they had been contending these reports could not fail of hav­ing a powerful effect; the clamour soon became general; the offi­cers of the army it was believed, had attempted to raise their fortunes on the distresses of their fellow citizens, and Congress become the ty­rants of their country.

Connecticut was the seat of this uneasiness; although other states were much agitated on the occasion. But the inhabitants of that state, accustomed to order and a due subordination to the laws, did not proceed to outrages: they took their usual mode of collecting the sense of the state—assembled in town meetings—appointed committees to meet in convention, and consult what measures should be adopted to procure a redress of their grievances. In this convention, which was [Page 297] held [...] Middletown, some nugatory resolves were passed, expressing the disapprobation of the half pay act, and the subsequent commuta­tion of the grant for five years whole pay. The same spirit also dis­covered itself in the assembly at their October session 1783. A remon­strance against the acts in favour of the officers, was framed in the house of representatives and notwithstanding the upper house refused to concur in the measure, it was sent to congress.

During this situation of affairs, the public odium against the officers, was augmented by another circumstance. The officers, just before the disbanding of the army, had formed a society, called by the name of the Cincinnati, after the Roman Dictator, Cincinnatus.

Whatever were the real views of the framers of this institution, its design was generally understood to be harmless and honorable. The [...] views of the society could not however screen it from popular jealousy. A spirited pamphlet appeared in South Carolina, the avowed production of Mr. Burke, one of the Judges of the supreme court in the state, in which the author attempted to prove that the principles, on which the society was formed, would, in pro­cess of time, originate and establish an order of nobility in this coun­try, which would be repugnant to the genius of our republican gov­ernments and dangerous to liberty. This pamphlet appeared in Con­necticut, during the commotions raised by the half pay and commu­tation acts, and contributed not a little to spread the flame of opposi­tion.

Notwithstanding the discontents of the people were general, and ready to burst forth in sedition, yet men of information, viz. the offi­cers of government, the clergy, and persons of liberal education, were mostly opposed to the unconstitutional steps taken by the committees and convention at Middletown. They supported the propriety of the measures of Congress, both by conversation and writing, proved that such grants to the army were necessary to keep the troops together, and that the expense would not be enormous nor oppressive. During the close of the year 1783, every possible exertion was made to enlignten the people, and such was the effect of the arguments used by the mi­nority, that in the beginning of the following year, the opposition [...], the committees were dismissed, and tranquillity restored to the state. In May, the legislature were able to carry several measures which had before been extremely unpopular. An act was passed granting the impost of five per cent▪ to Congress; another giving great encouragement to commerce; and several towns were incor­porated with extensive privileges, for the purpose of regulating the ex­ports of the state, and facilitating the collection of debts.

The opposition to the congressional acts in favour of the officers, and to the order of the Cincinnati, did not rise to the same pitch in the other states as in Connecticut; yet it produced much disturbance i [...] Massachusetts, and some others. Jealousy of power had been uni­versally spread among the people of the United States. The destruc­tion of the old forms of governments, and the licentiousness of war, had, in a great measure, broken their habits of obedience; their pas­sions had been inflamed by the cry of despotism; and like centinels, [...] have been suddenly surprized by the approach of an enemy, the [...] of a leaf was sufficient to give them an alarm. This spirit of jealousy, operated with other causes to relax the energy of federal op­positions.

[Page 298] During the war, vast sums of paper currency had been emitted by Congress, and large quantities of specie had been introduced, towards the close of the war, by the French army, and the Spanish trade. Th [...]s plenty of money enabled the states to comply with the first requisitions of Congress; so that during two or three years, the federal treasury was, in some measure, supplied. But when the danger of war [...] ceased, and the vast importations of foreign goods had lessened the quantity of circulating specie, the states began to be very [...] in furnishing their proportion of monies. The annihilation of the credit of the paper bills had totally stopped their circulation, and the sp [...] was leaving the country in cargoes, for remittances to Great Britain still the luxurious habits of the people, contracted during the war, called for new supplies of goods, and private gratification seconded the narrow policy of state interest in defeating the operations of the general government.

Thus the revenues of Congress were annually diminishing; some of the states wholly neglecting to make provision for paying the inter­est of the national debt; others making but a partial provision, [...] the scanty supplies received from a few of the richest states, would hardly satisfy the demands of the civil list.

This weakness of the federal government, in conjunction with the flood of certificates or public securities, which Congress could neither fund nor pay, occasioned them to depreciate to a very inconsiderable value. The officers and soldiers of the late army, and those who furnished supplies for public exigencies, were obliged to receive for wages these certificates, or promistary notes, which passed at a fifth, [...] eighth or a tenth of their nominal value; being thus deprived at once of the greatest part of the reward due for their services. Some indeed profited by speculations in these evidences of the public debt; but such as were under a necessity of parting with them, were robbed of that sup­port which they had a right to expect and demand from their country­men.

Pennsylvania indeed made provision for paying the interest of her debts, both state and federal; assuming her supposed proportion of the continental debt, and giving the creditors of her own state notes in exchange for those of the United States. The resources of that state are immense, but she was not able to make punctual payments, even in a depreciated paper currency.

Massachusetts, in her zeal to comply fully with the requisitions of Congress, and satisfy the demands of her own creditors, laid a heavy tax upon the people. This was the immediate cause of the rebellion in that state, in 1786. But a heavy debt lying on the state, added to burdens of the same nature, upon almost every corporation within it; a decline, or rather all extinction of public credit; a relaxation and corruption of manners, and a free use of foreign luxuries; a decay of trade and manufactures, with a prevailing scarcity of money; and, above all, individuals involved in debt to each other. These were the real, though more remote causes of the insurrection. It was the tax which the people were required to pay, that caused them to f [...]l the evils which we have enumerated—this called forth all their other grievances; and the first act of violence committed, was the burning or destroying of the tax bill. This sedition threw the state into a con­vulsion which lasted about a year; courts of justice were violently obstructed; the collection of debts was suspended; and a body of [Page 299] armed troops, under the command of General Lincoln, was employed during the winter of 1786, to disperse the insurgents. Yet so numer­ous were the latter in the counties of Worcester, Hampshir [...] and [...], and so obstinately combined to oppose the execution of law by [...], that the governour and council of the state thought proper not [...] intrust General Lincoln with military powers, except to act on the defensive, and to repel force with force, in case the insurgents [...] him. The leaders of the rebels, however, were not men [...] [...]; they were desperate, but without fortitude; and while they were supported with a superiour force, they appeared to be im­pro [...]ed with that conciousness of guilt, which awes the most daring wretch, and makes him shrink from his purpose. This appears by the conduct of a large party of the rebels before the magazine at Springfield; where General Shepard, with a small guard, was station­ed to protect the continental stores. The insurgents appeared upon the plain, with a vast superiority of numbers, but a few shot from the [...] made the multitude retreat in disorder, with the loss of four men. This spirited conduct of General Shepard, with the industry, perseverence and prudent firmness of General Lincoln, dispersed the [...]—drove the leaders from the state, and restored tranquillity. A [...] [...] of indemnity was passed in the legislature for all the insur­gents, except a few of the leaders, on condition they should become [...]eable subjects and take the oath of allegiance. The leaders after­wards petitioned for pardon, which, from motives of policy, was [...] by the legislature. ^*

But the loss of public credit, popular disturbances and insurrections, [...] not the only evils which were generated by the peculiar circum­stances of the times. The emissions of bills of credit and tender laws, were added to the black catalogue of political disorders.

The expedient of supplying the deficiences of specie, by emissions of paper bills, was adopted very early in the colonies. The expedi­ [...] was obvious and produced good effects. In a new country, [...] population is rapid, and the value of lands increasing, the far­ [...] finds an advantage in paying legal interest for money; for if he [...] pay the interest by his profits, the increasing value of his lands [...] a few years, discharge the principal.

[...] no colony was this advantage more sensibly experienced than in Pennsylvania. The emigrations to that province were numerous—the natural population rapid—and these circumstances combined, advanced the value of real property to an astonishing degree. As the first set­ [...] there, as well as in other provinces, were poor, the purchase of a few foreign articles drained them of specie. Indeed for many years, the balance of trade [...]st have necessarily been greatly against the colonies.

But bills of cedit, emitted by the state and loaned to the industrious inhabitants, supplied the want of specie, and enabled the farmer to [...] stock. These bills were generally a legal tender in all coloni­al or private contracts, and the sums issued did not generally exceed the quantity requisite for a medium of trade; they retained their full nom­inal value in the purchase of commodities. But as they were not re­ceived by the British merchants, in payment of their goods, there [...] a great demand for specie and bills, which occasioned [...] latter at [...] times to appreciate. Thus was introduced a difference between [Page 300] the English sterling money and the currencies of the colonies, which remains to this day. ^*

The advantages the colonies had derived from bills for credit, under the British government, suggested to Congress, in 1775, the idea of is­suing bills for the purpose of carrying on the war. And this wa [...] perhaps their only expedient. Money could not be raised by taxation—it could not be borrowed. The first emissions had no other effect upon the medium of commerce, than to drive the specie from circu­lation. But when the paper substituted for specie, [...]ad, by repeated emissions, augmented the sum in circulation, much beyond the usual sum of specie, the bills began to loose their value. The depreciation continued in proportion to the sums emitted, until seventy, and even one hundred and fifty nominal paper dollars, were hardly an equiva­lent for one Spanish milled dollar. Still, from the year 1775 to 178 [...], this depreciating paper currency was almost the only medium of trade. It supplied the place of specie, and enabled Congress to support a numerous army; until the sum in circulation amounted to two hun­dred millions of dollars. But about the year 1780, specie began to be plentiful, being introduced by the French army, a private trade with the Spanish islands, and an illicit intercourse with the British garrison at New York. This circumstance accelerated the depreciation of pa­per bills, until their value had sunk almost to nothing. In 1781, the merchants and brokers in the southern states, apprehensive of the approaching sate of the currency, pushed immense quantities of it suddenly into New England—made vast purchases of goods in Boston—and instantly the bills vanished from circulation.

The whole history of this continental paper is a history of public and private frauds. Old specie debts were often paid in a depreciated currency—and even new contracts for a few weeks on days were of­ten discharged with a small part of the value received. From this plenty and fluctuating state of the medium, sprung hosts of speculat­ors and itinerant traders, who left their honest occupations for the prospect of immense gains, in a fraudulent business, that depended on no fixed principles, and the profits of which could be reduced to no certain calculations.

To increase these evils, a project was formed to fix the prices of ar­ticles, and restrain persons from giving or receiving more for any com­modity than the price stated by authority. These regulating acts were reprobated by every man acquainted with commerce and finance; as they were intended to prevent an effect without removing the cause. To attempt to fix the value of money, while streams of bills were in­cessantly flowing from the treasury of the United States, was as ridicu­lous as an attempt to restrain the [...]ing of wa [...] [...]n rivers amidst show­ers of rain.

Notwithstanding all opposition, some states framed and attempted to enforce these regulating acts. The effect was, a momentary appar­ent stand in the price of articles; innumerable acts of collusion and evasion among the dishonest; numberless injuries done to the honest; and finally a total disregard of all such regulations, and the consequen­tial contempt of laws and the authority of the magistrate.

[Page 301] During these fluctuations of business, occasioned by the variable value of money, people lost sight, in some measure, of the steady prin­ciples which had before governed their intercourse with each other­Speculation followed and relaxed the rigour of commercial obliga­tions.

Industry likewise had suffered by the flood of money which had deluged the states. The prices of produce had risen in proportion to the quantity of money in circulation, and the demand for the commo­dities of the country. This made the acquisition of money easy, and indolence and luxury, with their train of desolating consequences, spread themselves among all descriptions of people.

But as soon as hostilities between Great Britain and America were suspended, the scene was changed. The bills emitted by congress had for sometime before ceased to circulate; and the specie of the country was soon drained off to pay for foreign goods, the importations of which exceeded all calculation. Within two years from the close of the war, a scarcity of money was the general cry. The merchants found it impossible to collect their debts, and make punctual remittances to their creditors in Great Britain; and the consumers were driven to the necessity of retrenching their superfluities in living, and of return­ing to their ancient habits of industry and economy.

This change was however progressive and slow. In many of the states which suffered by the numerous debts they had contracted, and by the distresses of war, the people called aloud for emissions of paper bills to supply the deficiency of a medium. The depreciation of the continental bills, was a recent example of the ill effects of such an expedient, and the impossibility of supporting the credit of paper, was urged by the opposers of the measure as a substantial argument against adopting it. But nothing would silence the popular clamor; [...] many men of the first talents and eminence, united their voices [...]ith that of the populace. Paper money had formerly maintained its credit, and been of singular utility; and past experience, notwith­standing a change of circumstances, was an argument in its favor that have down all opposition.

Pennsylvania, although one of the richest states in the union, was the first to emit bills of credit, as a substitute for specie. But the revolution had removed the necessity of it, at the same time, that it had destroyed the means by which its former credit had been support­ed. Lands, at the close of the war, were not rising in value—bills on London could not so readily be purchased, as while the province was dependent on Great Britain—the state was split into parties, one of which attempted to defeat the measures most popular with the other—and the depreciation of continental bills, with the injuries which it had done to individuals, inspired a general distrust of all pub­lic promises.

Notwithstanding a part of the money was loaned on good landed security, and the faith of that wealthy state pledged for the redemp­tion of the whole at its nominal value, yet the advantages of specie a [...] a medium of commerce, especially as an article of remittance to London, soon made a difference of ten per cent. between the bills of credit and specie. This difference may be considered rather as an appreciation of gold and silver, than a depreciation of paper; but its effects, in a commercial state, must be highly prejudicial. It on [...] the door to frauds of all kinds, and frauds are usually [...] [Page 302] on the honest and unsuspecting, especially upon all classes of la­bourers.

North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, had recourse to the fame wretched expedient to supply themselves with money; not reflecting that industry, frugality, and good commercial laws are the only means of turning the balance of trade in favour of a country, and that this balance is the only permanent source of solid wealth and ready money. But the bills they emitted shared a worse fate than those of Pennsylvania; they expelled almost all the circulating cash from the states; they lost a great part of their nominal value, they im­poverished the merchants, and embarrassed the planters.

The state of Virginia tolerated a base practice among the inhabi­tants of cutting dollars and smaller pieces of silver, in order to prevent it from leaving the state. This pernicious practice prevailed also in Georgia. ^*

Maryland escaped the calamity of a paper currency. The house of delegates brought forward a bill for the emission of bills of credit to a large amount; but the senate firmly and successfully resisted the pernicious scheme. The opposition between the two houses was vio­lent and tumultuous; it threatened the state with anarchy; but the question was carried to the people, and the good sense of the senate finally prevailed.

New Jersey is situated between two of the largest commercial towns in America, and consequently drained of specie. This state also e­mitted a large sum in bills of credit, which served to pay the interest of the public debt; but the currency depreciated, as in other states.

Rhode Island exhibited a melancholly proof of that licentiousness and anarchy which always follows a relaxation of the moral princi­ples. In a rage for supplying the state with money, and filling every man's pocket without obliging him to earn it by his diligence, the leg­islature passed an act for making one hundred thousand pounds in bills; a sum much more than sufficient for a medium of trade in that state, even without any specie. The merchants in Newport and Pro­vidence opposed the act with firmness; and their opposition added fresh vigor to the resolution of the assembly, and induced them to en­force the scheme by a legal tender of a most extraordinary nature. They passed an act, ordaining that if any creditor should refuse to take their bills, for any debt whatever, the debtor might lodge the sum due, with a justice of the peace, who should give notice of it in the public papers; and if the creditor did not appear and receive the money within six months from the first notice, his debt should be for­feited. This act astonished all honest men; and even the promoters of paper money-making in other states, and other principles, reprobat­ed this act of Rhode Island, as wicked and oppressive. But the state was governed by faction. During the cry for paper money, a num­ber of boisterous, ignorant men, were elected into the legislature, from the smaller towns in the state. Finding themselves united with a majority in opinion, they formed and executed any plan their in­clination suggested; they opposed every measure that was agreeable to the mercantile interest; they not only made bad laws to suit their own wicked purposes, but appointed their own corrupt creatures to fill [Page 303] the judicial and executive departments. Their money depreciated sufficiently to answer all their vile purposes in the discharge of debts—business almost totally ceased, all confidence was lost, the state was thrown into confusion a [...] home and was execrated abroad.

Massachusetts Bay had the good fortune, amidst her political calam­ities, to prevent an emission of bills of credit. New Hampshire made no paper: but in the distresses which followed her loss of business af­ter the war, the legislature made houses, lumber, and most articles of produce, a legal tender in the fulfilment of contracts. It is doubtless unjust to oblige a creditor to receive any thing for his debt, which he had not in contemplation at the time of the contract. But as the commodities which were to be a tender by law, in New Hampshire, were of an intrinsic value, bearing some proportion to the amount of the debt, the injustice of the law was less flagrant, than that which enforc­ed the tender of paper in Rhode Island. Indeed a similar law pre­vailed for some time in Massachusetts; and in Connecticut it is op­tional with the creditor either to imprison the debtor or take land on execution at a price to be fixed by three indifferent freeholders; pro­vided no other means of payment shall appear to satisfy the demand. It must not however be omitted, that while the most flourishing commer­cial states introduced a paper medium, to the great injury of honest men, a bill for an emission of paper in Connecticut, where there is very little specie, could never command more than one eighth of the votes of the legislature. The movers of the bill have hardly escaped ridicule; so generally is the measure reprobated as a source of frauds and public mischief.

The legislature of New York, a state that had the least necessity and apology for making paper money, as her commercial advantages al­ways furnish her with specie sufficient for a medium, issued a large sum in bills of credit, which supported their value better than the cur­rency of any other state. Still the paper raised the value of specie▪ which is always in demand for exportation, and this difference of exchange between paper and specie, ever exposes commerce to most of the inconveniences resulting from a depreciated medium.

Such is the history of paper money thus far; a miserable substi­tute for real coin, in a country where the reins of government are too weak to compel the fulfilment of public engagements, and where all confidence in public faith is totally destroyed.

While the states were thus endeavouring to repair the loss of specie, by empty promises, and to support their business by shadows, rather than by reality, the British ministry formed some commercial regula­tions that deprived them of the profits of their trade to the West-Indies and Great Britain. Heavy duties were laid upon such articles as were remitted to the London merchants for their goods, and such were the duties upon American bottoms, that the states were almost wholly deprived of the carrying trade. A prohibition, was laid up­on the produce of the United States, shipped to the English West India Islands in American built vessels, and in those manned by A­merican seamen. These restrictions fell heavy upon the eastern states, which depended much upon ship building for the support of their trade; and they materially injured the business of the other states.

Without a union that was able to form and execute a general syst­em of commercial regulations, some of the states attempted to impose [...]aints upon the British trade that should indemnify the merchant [Page 304] for the losses he had suffered, or induce the British ministry to enter into a commercial treaty and relax the rigor of their navigation laws. These measures however produced nothing but mischief. The states did not act in concert and the restraints laid on the trade of one state, operated to throw the business into the hands of its neighbour. Massachusetts, in her zeal to counteract the effect of the English nav­igation laws, laid enormous duties upon British goods imported into that state: but the other states did not adopt a similar measure; and the loss of business soon obliged that state to repeal or suspend the law. Thus when Pennsylvania laid heavy duties on British goods, Delaware and New Jersey made a number of free ports to encourage the landing of goods within the limits of those states; and the duties in Penn­sylvania served no purpose, but to create smuggling.

Thus divided, the states began to feel their weakness. Most of the legislatures had neglected to comply with the requisitions of Con­gress for furnishing the federal treasury; the resolves of Congress were disregarded; the proposition for a general impost to be laid and collected by Congress was negatived first by Rhode Island, and after­wards by New York. The British troops continued, under pretence of a breach of treaty on the part of America▪ to hold possession of the forts on the frontiers of the states. Many of the states indi­vidually were infested with popular commotions or iniquitous tend­er laws, while they were oppressed with publick debts; the certifi­cates or public notes had lost most of their value, and circulated mere­ly as the objects of speculation; Congres lost their respectability, and the United States, their credit and importance.

In the midst of these calamities, a proposition was made in 1783, in the house of delegates in Virginia, to appoint commissioners, to meet such as might be appointed in the other states, who should form a system of commercial regulations for the United States, and recom­mend it to the several legislatures for adoption. Commissioners were accordingly appointed▪ and a request was made to the legislatures of the other states to accede to the proposition. Accordingly several of the states appointed commissioners who met at Annpolis in the summer of 786, to consult what measures should be taken to unite the states in some general and efficient commercial system. But [...] the states were not all represented▪ and the powers of the commis­sioners were, in their opinion, too limited to propose a system of regu­lations adequate to the purposes of government, they agreed to re­commend a general convent on to be held at Philadelphia the next year▪ with powers to frame a general plan of government for the United States. This measure appeared to the commissioners absolute­ly necessary. The old confederation was essentially defective. It was destitute of almost every principle necessary to give effect to legis­lation.

It was defective in the article of legislating over states, instead of individuals. All history testifies that recommendations will not op­erate as laws, and compulsion cannot be exercised over states, with­out violence, war and anarchy. The confederation was also desti [...] of a sanction to its laws. When resolutions were passed in Congress▪ there was no power to compel obedience by fine, by suspension of pri­vileges or other means. It was also destitute of a guarantee for the state governments. Had one state been invaded by its neighbour, the union was not constitutionally bound to assist in repelling the in­vasion, [Page 305] and supporting the constitution of the invaded state. The confederation was further deficient in the principle of apportioning the quotas of money to be furnished by each state; in a want of power to form commercial laws, and to raise troops for the defence and secu­rity of the union; in the equal suffrage of the states, which placed Rhode Island on a footing in Congress with Virginia; and to crown all the defects, we may add the want of a judiciary power, to define the laws of the union, and to reconcile the contradictory decisions of a number of independent judicatories.

These and many inferior defects were obvious to the commissioners, and therefore they urged a general convention, with powers to form and offer to the consideration of the states, a system of general govern­ment that should be less exceptionable. Accordingly in May, 1787, delegates from all the states, except Rhode Island, assembled at Phila­delphia, and chose General Washington for their President. After four months deliberation, in which the clashing interests of the several states, appeared in all their force, the convention agreed to recommend the plan of federal government which we have already recited.

As soon as the plan of the federal constitution was submitted to the legislatures of the several states, they proceeded to take measures for collecting the sense of the people upon the propriety of adopting it. In the small state of Delaware, a convention was called in November, which, after a few days deliberation, ratified the constitution, without a dissenting voice.

In the convention of Pennsylvania, held the same month, there was a spirited opposition to the new form of government. The de­bates were long and interesting. Great abilities and firmness were displayed on both sides; but, on the 13th of December, the constitu­tion was received by two thirds of the members. The minority were [...]atisfied, and with an obstinacy that ill became the representatives of a free people, published their reasons of dissent, which were calcu­lated to inflame a party already violent, and which, in fact, produced [...] disturbances in the western part of the state.

In New Jersey, the convention which met in December, were unanimous in adopting the constitution; as was likewise that of Georgia.

In Connecticut there was some opposition; but the constitu­tion was on the 9th of January 1788, ratified by three fourths of the [...]es in convention, and the minority peaceably acquiesced in the de­ [...]on.

In Massachusetts, the opposition was large and respectable. The convention, consisting of more than three hundred delegates, were assembled in January, and continued their debates, with great candor and liberality, about five weeks. At length the question was carried [...] the constitution by a small majority, and the minority, with that [...]ly condescension which becomes great minds, submitted to the [...]sure, and united to support the government.

In New Hampshire, the federal cause was for sometime doubtful. The greatest number of the delegates in convention, were at first on beside of the opposition; and some, who might have had their object­ [...] removed by the discussion of the subject, were instructed to reject the constitution. Although the instructions of constituents cannot, on the true principles of representation, be binding upon a deputy, in [Page 306] any legislative assembly, because his constituents are but a part of the state, and have not heard the arguments and objections of the whole, whereas his act is to affect the whole state, and therefore is to be di­rected by the sense or wisdom of the whole, collected in the legislative assembly; yet the delegates in the New Hampshire convention con­ceived very erroneously, that the sense of the freemen in the towns, those little dictricts, where no act of legislation can be performed, imposed a restraint upon their own wills. ^* An adjournment was therefore moved, and carried. This gave the people opportunity to gain a farther knowledge of the merits of the constitution, and at the se­cond meeting of the convention, it was ratified by a respectable majority.

In Maryland, several men of abilities appeared in the opposition, and were unremitted in their endeavours to persuade the people, that the proposed plan of government was artfully calculated to deprive them of their dearest rights; yet in convention it appeared that five sixths of the voices were in favour of it.

In South Carolina, the opposition was respectable; but two thirds of the convention appeared to advocate and vote for the constitu­tion.

In Virginia, many of the principal characters opposed the ratifica­tion of the constitution with great abilities and industry. But after a full discussion of the subject, a small majority, of a numerous conven­tion, appeared for its adoption.

In New York, two thirds of the delegates i [...] convention were, at their first meeting, determined to reject the constitution. Here there­fore the debates were the most interesting, and the event extremely doubtful. The argument was managed with uncommon address and abilities on both sides of the question. But during the session, the ninth and tenth states had acceded to the proposed plan, so that by the constitution, Congress were empowered to issue an ordinance for or­ganizing the new government. This event placed the opposition on new ground; and the expediency of uniting with the other states—the generous motives of conciliating all differences, and the danger of a rejection, influenced a respectable number, who were originally opposed to the constitution, to join the federal interest. The con­stitution was accordingly ratified by a small majority; but the ratifi­cation was accompanied here, as in Virginia, with a bill of rights, declaratory of the sense of the convention, as to certain great princi­ples, and with a catalogue of amendments, which were to be recom­mended to the consideration of the new Congress, and the several state legislatures.

North Carolina met in convention in July, to deliberate on the new constitution. After a short session they rejected it by a majority of one hundred and seventy-six, against seventy-six. In November 1789, however, this state again met in convention, and ratified the constitu­tion by a large majority.

Rhode Island was doomed to be the sport of a blind and singular policy. The legislature, in consistency with the measures which had been before pursued, did not call a convention, to collect the sense of the s [...]ate upon the proposed constitution; but in an unconstitutional and absurd manner, submitted the plan of government to the consider­ation of the people. Accordingly it was brought before town meet­ings, and in most of them rejected. In some of the large towns, par­ticularly [Page 307] in Newport and Providence, the people collected and resolv­ed, with great propriety, that they could not take up the subject; and that the proposition for embracing or rejecting the federal constitution, could come before no tribunal but that of the state in convention or legislature. On the 24th of May 1790, a convention of this state met at Newport, and on the 29th, adopted the constitution by a majority of two only.

Vermont, in convention at Bennington, January 10th 1791, ratifi­ed the constitution of the United States, by a great majority. ^*

From the moment the proceedings of the general convention at Phi­ladelphia transpired, the public mind was exceedingly agitated, and suspended between hope and sear, until nine states had ratified their plan of a federal government. Indeed the anxiety continued until Virginia and New York had acceded to the system. But this did not prevent the demonstrations of their joy, on the accession of each state.

On the ratification in Massachusetts▪ the citizens of Boston, in the ele­vation of their joy, formed a procession in honor of the happy event, which was novel, splendid, and magnificent. This example was after­wards followed, and in some instances improved upon, in Baltimore, Charleston, Philadelphia, New Haven, Portsmouth and New York, successively. Nothing could equal the beauty and grandeur of these exhibitions. A ship was mounted upon wheels, and drawn through the streets; mechanics erected stages▪ and exhibited specimens of labour in their several occupations, as they moved along the road; [...]ags with [...]lems, descriptive of all the arts and of the federal union, were invented and displayed in honor of the government; multitudes of all ranks in life assembled to view the splendid scenes; while so­briety, joy and harmony marked the brilliant exhibitions, by which the Americans celebrated the establishment of their Empire.

On the 3d of March 1789, the delegates from the eleven states, which at that time had ratified the constitution, assembled at New York, where a convenient and elegant building had been prepared for their accommodation. On opening and counting the votes for Presi­dent, it was found that GEORGE WASHINGTON was unanimously elect­ed to that dignified office, and that JOHN ADAMS ^† was chosen Vice [Page 308] President. The annunciation of the choice of the first and second Magistrates of the United States, occasioned a general diffusion of [Page]

[Page 309] joy among the friends to the union, and fully evinced that these em­inent characters were the choice of the people.

On the 30th of April 1789, GEORGE WASHINGTON was inaugu­rated PRESIDENT of the United States of America, in the city of New York. The ceremony was performed in the open gallery of Federal Hall, in the view of many thousand spectators. The oath was administered by Chancellor Livingston. Several circumstances concurred to render the scene unusually solemn—the presence of the beloved Father and Deliverer of his country—the impressions of grat­itude for his past services—the vast concourse of spectators—the de­vout fervency with which he repeated the oath, and the reverential manner in which he bowed to kiss the sacred volume—These circum­stances, together with that of his being chosen to the most dignified office in America, and perhaps in the world, by the unanimous voice of more than three millions of enlightened freemen, all conspired to place this among the most august and interesting scenes which have eve [...] been exhibited on this globe. ^*

Hitherto the deliberations of the legislature of the union, have been marked with wisdom, and the measures they have adopted have been productive of great national prosperity. The wise appointments to office, which, in general, have been made—the establishment of a re­venue and judiciary system, and of a national bank—the assumption of the debts of the individual states, and the encouragement that has been given to manufactures, commerce, literature, and to useful inven­tions, open the fairest prospect of the peace, union and increasing res­pectability of the American States.