CHAPTER I. Of NATURAL DIVERSITIES among MEN.

THAT all men are, by nature, equal, is an opinion so generally received among those who are accustomed to any degree of philosophical re­flection, that to call it in question might appear absurd, and to prove it superfluous. Yet, this opinion, like many general maxims which obtain a currency in the world, however true it may be, in its proper sense, is not. I am inclined to believe, of the greatest part, sufficiently founded according to the acceptation of those who admit it. If it is un­derstood in any sense, exclusive of all natural supe­riority and distinction among men, it will be found to contradict universal experience. At whatever pe­riod [Page 12] of human life, in whatever state or condition of society, we contemplate our species, we shall find that nature has distinguished individuals from each other, by peculiar and appropriate qualities, al­most as remarkably, in some instances, as she has distinguished the human race from the inferior creatures. Those philosophers, who, in order to exalt themselves, attempt to degrade their spe­cies, and display their eloquence by defending the most irrational paradoxes, are eager to persuade us that, as human nature, in its original state, is on a level with the brutes, so individuals among mankind derive every difference of corporeal and mental perfection that characterizes them, wholly from the opportunities of improvement which they have enjoyed, or from the happy situations in which they have been placed. Contradicting universal experience, they strive to refer the judgments which it establishes, to the class of po­pular prejudices; and, pretending to lead us to the true knowledge of human nature, exhibit to our view a state of brutish ignorance, and of savage ferocity, which has never existed but in their own imaginations. They carry us back to a period of which there are no monuments, and in which they consider man not as a social, but as a solitary animal, actuated by mere animal instincts, desti­tute of ideas, a mere quadruped grazing along [Page 13] with the brutes, and as little distinguished from the rest of his species by individual qualities, as his species from the other inhabitants of the forest. In order to establish this theory, so disgraceful to human nature, they produce certain relations of travellers, concerning Pongos, and Enjokos, and Ourang-Outangs, whom they conclude to be pri­mitive men, whose conduct and mode of life can alone furnish us with just representations of our original condition ^*. So easy is it, when a favour­ite opinion is to be maintained, or a paradox established, to adopt, as principles, judgments de­stitute of all evidence, and to reject principles sanctioned by universal consent. So apt are the enemies of system, to run into systems of their own, whose sole recommendation is singularity, while ingenious sophistry is their only support.

Those writers seem not to have reflected, that, if man was originally a brute, he must ever have continued so; and that that instinct, which solely they allow to him in that situation, if it is unerr­ing [Page 14] within its prescribed compass, never can, by any improvement, be carried one step beyond its primitive limits. That capacity of perfection, which they grant to him, as his only distinction above the inferior animals, implies, in its very na­ture, more elevated and extensive powers, than any of these can possess. To deny this, is to as­sert, that a building may be erected without a foundation, an elegant and beautiful form exhibit­ed without original materials, an effect produced without a cause. These writers seem to overlook the whole analogy of nature, in which every spe­cies is distinguished from every other, by proper­ties common to all of the same class, while all the individuals of each species are characterized by their peculiar qualities. It would be equally ab­surd to think of forming a man out of a brute, as to imagine that a fish may be transformed into a quadruped.

Those, however, who seek not fame, but wis­dom, not brilliancy, but truth, will, in all their enquities concerning human nature, take the hu­man species, as they find it exhibited, in its various forms, by daily observation, by the incorrupted records of History, and by the authentic relations of travellers. Beyond these sources of informa­tion they will not pretend to go in quest of states [Page 15] of human nature, which are only to be found in the pictures of poets, or in the hypotheses of phi­losophers equally fanciful; and they will consider it as no less ridiculous for any one to philosophise on man with an Ourang-Outang before him, than it would be for a person, attempting to determine the qualities of gold, to reject an undoubted piece of that metal, and begin his experiments with a piece of pinchbeck. For, as a statue, however elegantly finished, still contains the rude mass of marble, on which so much symetry and beauty has been superinduced; so, man, in the most civilized state of society, still retains the original principles of his nature on which all the various modifica­tions he has undergone, have been ingrafted. It is the business of the philosopher to discover these amidst all the adventitious circumstances with which they may be connected, or the various shapes and colourings which they may have assum­ed. No human pursuit, no human institution, no human enjoyment, no human corruption itself, but may be ultimately referred to some original principle of our nature; and without these origin­al principles, it is impossible to account for the power of education, of habit, and of example. If, laying aside all regard to imaginary states of human nature, in which none of the principles, which now so powerfully influence our species, [Page 16] are supposed to have unfolded themselves, we fix our attention on mankind as they are exhibited to us in history, and by daily observation, there is one important fact, which must occur to every one endowed with the smallest reflection. This fact, on which I mean chiefly to found my reason­ings on the whole of this subject, is, that, how­ever similar the species may be in general, an infi­nite diversity of abilities, talents, and character, obtains among the individuals that compose it.

This diversity is evident with regard both to the body, and to the mind. In some, we behold great bodily strength and dexterity, and a pecu­liar aptitude for mechanical operations, and for rapid and powerful movements. In others, the powers of imagination conspicuously unfold them­selves; while judgment, acuteness, penetration, and sagacity, in the conduct of life, distinguish another class of men. An uncommon clearness and energy of intellect, and an aptitude for the abstract sciences, raise others above the common level. Some have an astonishing faculty of persuasion, of address, and management in mov­ing the affections, and influencing the conduct of their fellow men.

Nor is this diversity less remarkable in the mo­ral qualities of men, than in their corporeal and [Page 17] intellectual powers. Some have a wonderful command of their own passions, and can preserve their moderation and composure of soul amidst the greatest provocations, and the most trying cala­mities; others are deprived of all self government by the slightest adversity, or by the smallest oppo­sition. Some natures are extremely sympathetic, and easily moved by the distresses of their fellow men; while others discover an astonishing insen­sibility with regard not only to the afflictions of other persons, but even to their own. Benevo­lence, and all the gentle and amiable qualities which accompany it, peculiarly distinguish some characters, while fortitude and magnanimity, and all the stern and awful virtues, are the leading fea­tures of some elevated spirits. Not to mention the characteristical marks of ambition, avarice, voluptuousness, indolence, or vanity, which diver­sify such a number of individuals, it is certain that the moral complexion of men is as various as their corporeal constitution, or their mental faculties, and perhaps is greatly influenced by both.

Nor can it be alledged, that these distinctions of character are entirely derived from the present state of society, and from different opportunities of cultivation; and by no means referable to any original bent of nature. This conclusion will not [Page 18] be authorised either by the inductions of reason, or by experience. For, in the first place, it is hard to be conceived how any combination of cir­cumstances, or any influence of education and habit, can produce any power or propensity, of which the original seeds have not been dropped into the constitution by the hand of the Creator. All that situation and opportunity can effectuate, is to furnish these inherent powers and propensi­ties, with the means of unfolding themselves, of increasing in vigour, and of acquiring maturity. If they are entirely wanting, they will never be implanted by any effort of human skill, or be brought into action, by any favourable combina­tion of circumstances. If they exist in any degree, however small, opportunity, exercise and cultiva­tion, will advance them to a pitch of strength so greatly above their primitive condition, as will have the appearance of a real creation. If we at­tend to the fact itself, it must be evident that children and savages, who have received no in­struction, show varieties of character, as well as men who have enjoyed all the advantages of po­lished society, and who move in its different spheres. Although a proneness to imitation is universally predominant in childhood, yet the manner of imitating, and the objects to which it is directed are infinitely diversified. As soon as the [Page 19] faculties begin to unfold, all the passions and pro­pensities that belong to human nature impercepti­bly arise, and, according as the one or the other of these is most prevalent, characteristical features distinguish the infant. The objects that engage the attention of the savage, and the desires that animate his pursuits, are indeed few, in compari­son of those that exist in more polished states of society. Yet, as these concentrate his whole soul, so they excite its energies the more power­fully within their limited compass, and conspire the more speedily to form his character. In the savage state, the genuine impulses and propensities of nature are freely allowed to appear, and, col­lected in one point, exert themselves with the greater vigor, and give to each individual that peculiar complexion which results from the pecu­liar strength of his native powers ^*. The multi­plicity of objects which attract attention, and [...]i­mulate activity in more polished periods of society, prevent a character from being so speedily form­ed: while the uniform institutions of civilized life, mould all the members of the community to mutual resemblance, and contribute to efface those prominent and characteristical features, [Page 20] which the hand of nature has impressed. I mean not to assert that those diversities of talents and character are wholly to be ascribed to the unassist­ed powers of nature, but only that they prevail in the joint proportion of these powers, and of the circumstances that call them into exercise. As the fire will soon be extinguished, if not constantly fed by combustibles, and as these combustibles, however multiplied, will not produce flame, and light, and heat, unless they are kindled; so the human faculties, if never called into action by corresponding situations, will remain torpid and inefficacious; and the most favourable concur­rence of circumstances will not produce genius, dexterity, sagacity, and virtue, if the original seeds of all these qualities are totally wanting. Be this as it may, it is incontrovertible that there is, among the various individuals that compose the human species, an almost infinite diversity of abilities, temper, and character.

From this circumstance a natural inequality must necessarily arise. Those talents and disposi­tions, which are the most amiable and respectable, directly point out their possessors as the objects of love and esteem. Wherever such qualities appear it is as impossible for the human mind, unless it be most deplorably depraved, to withhold its admiration [Page 21] and affection, as it would be for any na­tural cause not to produce its effect when placed in circumstances adapted to its operation. Every display of genius, of sagacity, of penetration, and prudence, is calculated to excite the admiration of the beholders, to afford them pleasure, and if beneficently directed, to demand their gratitude. Fortitude, magnanimity and generosity, command veneration, and excite esteem. Gentleness, mo­deration, kindness, and compassion, appearing as the distinguishing features in any character, can­not fail to attract the love and complacency of all to whom they are known. Even corporeal strength and dexterity procure a certain degree of respect to their possessors, on account of their utility in life both to others and to themselves.

It is equally certain, that respect, esteem, ve­neration and love, ensure to those who are the objects of them, a very high degree of influence over the rest of mankind. Such will be listened to, imitated, and obeyed, by all who are capable of estimating the qualities above mentioned ac­cording to their real merit; the lustre which they shed around their possessors dazzles those whose souls are less discerning and elevated; and even the stupid and the base are constrained to pay an involuntary homage. That such qualities are the [Page 22] only original sources of power and influence, is evident from the conduct of all who aspire at ac­quiring consideration and authority. If they want the reality, they affect the appearance of them, and, even when power alone reduces their fellow men under their subjection, they endeavor also, if not stupified by the habits of tyranny, to engage their esteem, and to captivate their bene­volence, sensible that dominion, to which these give no support, can never be sure and lasting. I am far from asserting that all power and distinc­tion are founded on this natural basis. Lament­able experience proves the contrary. But, that respectable and amiable qualities are the primitive sources of authority and pre-eminence; and, when freely allowed to exert themselves, cannot fail to obtain them, will be as generally acknow­ledged as it is certain in fact ^*.

[Page 23]Nature herself, then, has evidently established unambiguous distinctions among men, and produ­ced a very remarkable inequality among the indi­viduals of our species. We may freely assert, that, if any mortal conspicuously excelled the rest of mankind in every possible talent and quality, whether corporeal, intellectual, or moral, which di­stinguishes the species in general, and had every pos­sible opportunity of displaying this perfection in all its lustre, he would be raised, by nature herself, as much above the rest of his fellow men as they are above the inferior animals, and be as clearly de­signed to lead and govern them. Or, if all the abovementioned qualities were the peculiar attri­butes of any given number of men, these would be marked out, by Divine Providence, as a glori­ous aristocracy or senate, to preside over the com­munity to which they belonged. For they would be possessed of every qualification to discern, of [Page 24] every disposition to pursue, and, from the willing homage and obedience of the rest of mankind, of every power to secure, the public good. Or, lastly, if any human being were invested with such strength and agility of body, with such com­pass of understanding, and with such complete mastery of his own passions, as fully to provide himself with every thing necessary for his subsist­ence, or conducive to his convenience and com­fort, and as neither to be exposed to the injuries of others, nor to be tempted to injure them, nor to be affected by their misfortunes; such a mortal would be perfectly independent of the rest of mankind; and as he needed nothing from them, so he would, in no respect whatever, be their debtor.

But such characters as those above described have never yet existed in the world, and indeed never can exist. Such an assemblage of perfection is not human, but divine.

CHAPTER II. Of the DISTRIBUTION of HUMAN ABILITIES and TALENTS.

IF we consider the various talents and modes of excellence of which the human species is capable, we shall acknowledge that neither all these, nor any considerable number of them, have ever been found united in any one individual; nay, that the highest degrees of many of them are incompatible with each other. For, when distinguished honors, or extensive reputation, are acquired by illustri­ous qualities, we are not thence to infer that the persons, to whom these distinctions are allotted, surpass the rest of mankind in every quality be­longing to the species; but only that they have attained superiority in such, as being more un­common, are, on that account, more admired. Those mechanical arts and inferior virtues, with­out which human society could not subsist, attract no admiration, because they are daily exhibited. [Page 26] Yet the most illustrious of mankind stand more in need of the benefits which these afford, than their distinguished abilities can confer on the humble possessors of the former. As those endowed with the qualities most necessary in human life, but of inferior estimation, especially such as are display­ed in mechanical labour and art, cannot, from their occupations themselves, aspire at the sublim­er and more elegant abilities which distinguish others; these, on the other hand, must remain destitute of the more useful ones. That leisure, meditation, and study, without which the facul­ties of the mind cannot be perfected, necessarily prevent that full exercise of the corporeal mem­bers, which ensures their highest vigour and agi­lity. A fancy uncommonly lively and bright is adverse to the patient and accurate researches of philosophy, and to the just application of the in­tellect, in the discovery and developement of truth, and the improvement of science. That minute attention to calculation, that arithmetical exactness, and that constant observance of the un­varying routine of business, which are necessary to mercantile and oeconomical pursuits, but which present no imagery to the mind, are inauspicious to the more elegant enjoyments of taste, and to the cultivation of the fine arts. The stern and awful virtues seldom associate with the gentle and [Page 27] amiable, and, claiming respect and veneration, seem to disdain complacency and love. Even some corporeal perfections appear repugnant to others. The most robust conformation of the members, and the strength it produces, are not easily united with great agility, and with delicate refinement in the organs of sense. In a word, it appears to be the intention of nature, that, although the human faculties are various, and capable of being carried to amazing heights of excellence; yet this should seldom be accomplished, unless when un­common culture and improvement are bestowed on some particular faculty, or at least, on a few faculties which have a peculiar native strength.

Variety of talents is, therefore, more applica­ble to the species than to individuals. The seeds of each (as we have above observed) are, per­haps, cast into every individual constitution, but the soil is differently adapted to them, and that particular power to which it is favourable, springs up, and, if properly cultivated, comes to maturi­ty, spreads around its branches, and bears abun­dant fruit. It may be objected, that it seems ve­ry preposterous to suppose the creator implanting in any constitution the principles of powers, which were never designed to come to maturity. But, let it be considered that, as the different improve­ments [Page 28] of men depend on various occurrences, and, as mentioned above, the characteristical qualities of each individual will be in the united degree of their primitive strength, and of the opportunities of culture; it was necessary that the seeds of each should be dropped into every human frame, so that, when favourable circumstances concurred, that power which they were best calculated to im­prove might spring up and flourish, and thus as much human excellence might, on the whole, be produced as the human condition would admit. This was, moreover, necessary in order to consti­tute that general similarity which characterises the species, and unites them together in the bonds of a common nature.

Be this as it may, it is undoubted that those who aim at distinction, or even at moderate degrees of excellence in a great variety of objects, generally exhibit a ridiculous figure; after having wasted their time, exhausted their powers, and superin­duced on their minds habits of inconstancy and fickleness. Even the greatest genuises, when they leave that particular track, in which indul­gent nature had provided them with unfading lau­rels, and endeavour to invade the province, and and snatch the rewards of others, while they pre­sent, on the one hand, the most astonishing instan­ces [Page 29] of the strength of the human mind, afford, on the other, no less convincing proofs of its weak­ness and vanity ^*. Hence the necessity of each in­dividual devoting himself to some favourite and useful pursuit, to which every other should be subservient, and of applying to the diligent dis­charge of the duties of that department in which he can produce the greatest benefit to mankind, and acquire the greatest honour to himself.

From what has been said in this and the prece­ding chapter, it appears, in the first place, That nature herself has established clear and certain distinctions among men, in the various qualities allotted to each individual, and in the various op­portunities furnished them in the course of life for their improvement. These opportunities may oc­cur, though in inferior degrees, in the rudest as well as in the most polished states of society. It is evident, secondly, That these distinctions com­prehend not the perfection of all the human pow­ers, but the singular excellence of one, or of a few of them, conspicuous in individuals.

CHAPTER III. Of the MUTUAL DEPENDENCE of MANKIND.

FROM the two facts established in the con­clusion of the last chapter, duly considered, it ap­pears to me that the just notion of the natural equality of all mankind, as far as relates to their mutual duties, is to be derived; and that, howe­ver paradoxical it may seem, an equality the most exact and perfect, in respect of every moral and social obligation, springs from inequality itself.

Human nature is evidently endowed with a va­riety of appetites and desires, adapted to the va­rious objects which are capable of supplying its wants, or of furnishing it with pleasures. The bo­dy stands in need of constant support, which is not to be procured without considerable art and la­bour. This art and labour must be greatly increa­sed, if not only the necessaries, but also the con­veniencies and elegancies of life are desired, and [Page 31] the refinements of sense considered as objects of pursuit. The senses are not only inlets of plea­sures merely corporeal, but of others also of a more refined and delicate kind, of which the mind under the influence of fancy, is the chief percipi­ent. Hence they open a very extensive field of human enjoyment, and claim the whole compass of nature to administer materials for the fine arts. The mind of man is eagerly desirous of knowledge, and wishes to discover the relations, the causes and the effects, of the various objects that are present­ed to it. Not only corporeal wants and appe­tites, the senses of beauty, of harmony, and of magnificence, and the love of knowledge, subject man to necessities, which must be supplied, or offer to him pleasures which he cannot but desire; he is also actuated by various affections, some selfish and some benevolent, which serve as constant spurs to action, and impel him into various tracks, according to the different complexions of their ob­jects.

Such is the nature of man; and from what has been said above, as well as from other considera­tions on which I shall slightly touch, it is evident, that each individual is insufficient, not only for his own perfection, but even for the supply of his most urgent necessities. The other animals are [Page 32] by nature provided with defence and covering, with subsistence and shelter. They soon attain the full vigour and the complete exercise of their powers, and, without instruction or succour, can apply them with certainty to their respective ends. But man, as he enters into the world naked, de­fenceless, and unprovided with subsistence, so, without the assistance and co-operation of his spe­cies, he must ever remain in the most abject and comfortless condition. The inclemency of the seasons, the sterility of the earth, the ferocity of savage animals, his natural imbecility, oppose to his comfortable existence so many and so powerful obstacles, as he could never expect of himself to surmount. He is assailed by evils which he cannot repel, subject to wants which he cannot supply, and surrounded by objects which he cannot, by his own strength, convert to his use. Destined for society, he is immediately thrown on its care, and bound by his own weakness, to contribute to its strength. Designed to form the most intimate union with his fellow men, he is constituted miser­able and destitute without them; but, constrained by this circumstance, to join his efforts to theirs, he derives the most astonishing acquired power from his natural imbecility. Furnished with ca­pacities greatly superior to instinct, he at first ex­ercises them in a manner greatly below it; and [Page 33] formed for infinite improvement, he proceeds from the smallest beginnings; but can neither be­gin nor proceed without the co-operation of his fellow men.

What multiplication of ingenuity, what combi­nation of industry, what concurrence of different abilities, are requisite not only to carry to perfec­tion, but even to invent and exercise, with any tolerable degree of dexterity, those mechanical arts and employments, which exalt the citizen a­bove the savage, which sweeten and embellish so­cial life, which furnish all that variety of conve­nience and pleasure we daily behold and enjoy, and which, from the most helpless of the animal creation, render man the lord of the world. Will the forest be felled and moulded into furniture, the quarry be dug and polished into materials for building, the marsh drained and converted into a­rable land, the overflowing river confined to its proper channel, the inferior creatures constrained to succour human weakness by their superior strength, or their spoils be manufactured into clothing; will the superfluities of one country supply the deficiencies of another, and navigation unite the most distant regions by the mutual and permanent ties of beneficial commerce; will all this, and much more, which I forbear to enume­rate, [Page 34] be accomplished without the united and just­ly regulated efforts of the human species, and the equal application of the talents of each to the common interest ^*? Will the secret springs of na­ture be explored, and the laws, which she observes through all her different provinces, be investiga­ted unless time and opportunity are furnished to the acute and the ingenious, by means of a com­modious subsistence provided for them, by the la­bour and industry of those whose faculties are less refined and exalted?

Thus it appears that, as each individual is total­ly insufficient for his own happiness, so he must depend, in a great measure, on the assistance of others for its attainment; and that however much any one may contribute to the benefit of his fel­low men, by the excellence and splendour of his abilities, whether nutural or acquired, he derives from them as much as he can bestow, and fre­quently much more than he gives.

If the union of all, then, be necessary for the sustenance, the convenience and the happiness of each individual, and each individual can, in his turn, contribute considerably to the common wel­fare, [Page 35] it follows, as a necessary consequence of this determination of nature, that order and su­bordination must be introduced, by which the different members of the community may have their proper tasks allotted to them, the talents of each be directed to their proper objects, injustice and violence be restrained, and as great a sum of common felicity be produced, as the condition of humanity will permit. Hence, new channels are cut out for abilities, namely, those which are ex­ercised in offices of power and authority. As rea­son, however, loudly dictates the institution of these for the common good of the human race; so she requires that they fall to the lot of those who are qualified to discharge them. When this actually takes place, the order of nature is observ­ed, and all its happy consequences ensue. When this order is overturned, and the different depart­ments of society, but especially those of the high­est dignity and use, are committed to such as are incapable of discharging the duties of them, all the dismal effects of folly, injustice, and confusion, are spread through the whole of the social frame, and the evils of that inequality, which the cor­ruption and blindness of mankind have introduced, are severely felt. When the talents and merits of men are allowed their free course, are permit­ted a fair field for their exercise, and are not de­prived [Page 36] of those rewards which are by nature an­nexed to them, there never can be any ground to complain of inequality among men. For, howe­ver unequal their abilities and opportunities may be in themselves, the most perfect equality exists in the distribution of the rewards and advantages annexed to each by the constitution of nature. The good effects of universal industry, and the proper application of the powers of every individual, so as to produce the greatest good upon the whole, are then felt through all the social body. Every person possesses that degree of wealth, of conside­ration, and of honour, to which he is entitled by his honest industry, or by his services to the pub­lic. The active and noble minded exert all their powers for the common welfare, in the most effi­cacious and illustrious manner. The indolent and selfish are constrained, by the indigence and contempt into which they must otherwise fall, to contribute their share to it. But, when power and riches are employed to frustrate virtue of the respect which is its due, abilities, of the distinction and influence which they justly claim, and honest industry, of its natural fruits, a most shocking in­equality takes place, which can only subsist in con­junction with the most odious tyranny. In pro­portion as this oppression prevails, which throws the principal advantages of society into [Page 37] the hands of a few, by no means the most respec­table of its members, and renders it a patrimony and inheritance, of which they may dispose at pleasure, society is corrupted and miserable. In proportion as that equality is maintained, which the Creator has established, and which consists, not in all the members of the social body being placed on a level, but in mutual dependence and parity of obligation among all, amidst a variety of distinctions, conditions, and ranks, society is hap­py, free, and flourishing, securing to each indivi­dual the full enjoyment of all his natural advanta­ges, ensuring to the public the complete product of the efforts of all well directed and justly com­bined; uniting all the members of the social body by the ties of mutual interest and benevolence, and preserving as much liberty as is consistent with civil union.

In such a happy state of things, whatever forms of subordination may exist, as there is a mutual dependence among all the parts of the social body; so there is not the smallest ground for pride and insolence, on the one hand, or for degradation and debasement of sentiment, on the other. Are any exalted above others by the superiority of their mental powers, they are inferior to them in other qualities, which are absolutely necessary to the [Page 38] support and convenience of life. If one excels in useful qualities, another is distinguished by a­greeable and shining ones; and, as pleasure with­out utility, is pernicious, so utility, without pleasure, becomes languid and insipid. If one is exalted to power, or illustrious by fame, those who faithfully discharge the duties of an hum­ble and obscure station, enable him to fulfil the duties of his more conspicuous one, and con­tribute to his exaltation, by occupying those parts of the general system, without which the higher orders could not subsist, and by paying him that deference and respect to which his merit is in­titled. If one is eminent by his wisdom and sa­gacity, by his genius and wit, by his knowledge and erudition; another is no less distinguished by his activity and strength, by his skill and dexterity, by his industry and labour. If one is venerable by his elevation of soul, by his generosity, public spirit, and intrepidity; another is amiable by his gentleness and complaisance, by his patience, mo­desty, and meekness; and, if the former qualities are the ornaments, the latter are the great sweet­ners, of life, while both, operating in conjunction, supply mutual defects, and impart mutual strength and imbellishment. If those who fill the higher stations in a becoming manner, confer the greatest benefits on their fellow men, they are equally in­debted [Page 39] to them for their support. If the latter stand in need of the judgment and penetration of the former; in order to devise the best plans of prosecuting the public good, and of maintaining the general safety; these, again, stand in need of their resolution and diligence to carry their plans into execution. If some contribute to the instruc­tion and improvement of their fellow men, by teaching and illustrating the grand principles of virtue, on which the welfare of society is princi­pally founded, those who enjoy the benefit of their instructions, turn them to their profit, by practising towards them the virtues which they in­culcate. If one class of men maintain good or­der and peace, and another exercise all the ele­gant and useful arts of social life, there are o­thers who secure these enjoyments and advanta­ges against external invasion, and offer their blood as their contribution to the common interest.

As, in the human body, therefore, the welfare of the whole depends upon that of each individual member, and that again is necessarily affected by whatever affects the whole system; and there is thus a mutual dependence and sympathy among all the parts; so, in society, every individual having a particular portion of talents, and, if properly placed, a particular station, conformable to this, [Page 40] allotted to him, becomes necessary to the welfare of the whole community, and as he affects, is like­wise affected by, its prosperity or detriment. All are united by mutual dependence and support: Break but one link of the chain, and the rest are of no use, or, at least, are deprived of much ad­vantage and comfort, which is enjoyed when the social series is complete.

Nor ought it to be alledged, that many of those wants, which cannot be supplied but in soci­ety, are not the wants of nature, but are merely adventitious, and generated in that society, the necessity of which they are produced to prove. We readily grant that, in refined and highly po­lished states of civilized life, where luxury has u­niversally diffused its effeminating influence, ma­ny wants and desires are generated, which are not only not agreeable to nature, but repugnant to human perfection and felicity. Let it how­ever be observed, that this pernicious tendency to human happiness begins by loosening those ties which knit men most firmly together. It is selfish, not social, enjoyments which are most ad­verse to him an perfection, and man begins to in­jure his own happiness, by separating it from the general good. It is undoubted that all the origi­nal powers of human nature are carried to the [Page 41] highest perfection in society, and droop and lan­guish in solitude. That state, surely, which is most perfective of every human faculty, is the most natural, and it is only by the strangest perversion of terms and ideas that the contrary can be assert­ed. But the perfection of the social state cannot be attained, without the mutual dependence of mankind, in that extensive sense in which I have exhibited it. That dependence is, therefore, found­ed in the constitution of nature itself.

CHAPTER IV. FINAL CAUSES of the VARIETY of HUMAN TALENTS.

IT is evidently the intention of Divine Provi­dence in bestowing upon different persons different powers and abilities, to point them out for diffe­rent stations and circumstances, to assign to them different duties and tasks, and thus to promote most effectually the welfare of the human species. By this scheme, it is unquestionable, many more advantages are obtained, with regard to the best interests of mankind, than could have been secur­ed by dispensing the same portion of ability and virtue, that distinguishes our species, on any other plan whatever. For every particular talent is thus cultivated with greater success, when it oc­cupies the constant and habitual attention of its possessor, than it could have been if he had been overloaded with a multiplicity of employments, or distracted by the exercise of various abilities. A greater sum of excellence is thus produced in the species, and, of consequence, its perfection and [Page 43] happiness is more effectually promoted. By this plan of distribution, moreover, opportunities are afforded for the exercise of many virtues, which could not have otherwise existed. Thus, were all equally wise and learned, no opportunity could be afforded for displaying either a communi­cative or a docile disposition. Were all equally rich, or equally powerful, neither generosity nor gratitude could be excited; and, as there could be no demand for succour and protection, on the one hand, so, on the other, there would be no oc­casion for condescension and sympathy. Finally, mankind by being rendered absolutely necessary to each other, are constrained to maintain a mutu­al intercourse of good offices; and society is thus united by the firmest and most lasting bonds.

In fact, this diversity of talents and virtues ap­pears to be the chief circumstance which qualifies men for a social and political existence. Were all endowed with the same definite portion of pow­ers, of whatever kind, to what purpose would men associate, since they would derive little more from their union than they individually possessed? An accumulation of mere strength would be the only effect of combined powers, in the same man­ner that six horses can draw a greater weight, and to a greater distance, than two. This diversity of [Page 44] abilities, by rendering mankind mutually depend­ent from their detached weakness, becomes the strongest motive to association, the most powerful bond of society, and its greatest excellence and perfection, when it is properly arranged. With­out this, and on the supposition that the same spe­cific qualities were, as in the brutes, allotted to each individual, a more perfect equality would indeed be established among all the members of the species; but it would be an equality useless for every purpose of association, and would serve ra­ther to separate than to unite them. This circum­stance I am inclined to think, has not hitherto been sufficiently considered, at least not in the light in which I have represented it. In this light, those pleas of superior wisdom, or of supe­rior power, which Aristotle*, and some late wri­ters, who appear not very favourable to the cause of equal freedom, have urged as the foundations of the dominion of one part of mankind over the rest, are destitute of all force. For, if these pleas should be admitted, even in their utmost ex­tent, they will furnish no ground for independent dominion and superiority, unless it can be proved, at the same time, that the possessors of these qua­lities are equally endowed with every other which is necessary or conducive to human felicity. Should [Page 45] the wisdom and the strength (as is commonly the case) be found indifferent subjects, it will remain to be decided to which the superiority is to be assign­ed, and what particular degree of each of these qua­lities is necessary to constitute a rightful claim. Art and ingenuity may likewise suppose themselves en­titled to some portion of dominion, since it is un­doubted that their influence is very considerable in the affairs of life. In this manner, every thing is thrown into confusion, and no clear no­tion of right is any where left. But, by the view we have taken of the subject, (which will, I flat­ter myself, be found to be the true one) every man acquires a clear and definite claim according to the portion he contributes to the general wel­fare, a most salutary equality is still left among mankind, and the community is knit together by ties which cannot be dissolved, without the de­struction of general and particular happiness. In a word, the slightest contemplation of human na­ture convinces us that man is designed by his Cre­ator for society, and, as this was his destination, he is so constituted as to be impelled towards it by all his propensities and powers, and linked to it by all his wants and enjoyments, with whatever abi­lities he may be endowed, or in whatever station he may be placed.

CHAPTER V. The just Notion of the NATURAL EQUALITY of MEN is placed in EQUALITY of OBLIGATION.—The proper TENDENCY of this DOCTRINE.

FROM what has been already said, it will now sufficiently appear, that the most perfect equa­lity of obligation, of benefits received and return­ed, subsists among all the members of society, of whatever denomination or degree, who faithfully discharge their duties; that that dependence, which the proud and the powerful are fain to li­mit to one sphere and station, runs through all alike, and that independence, at which all aspire, is no where to be found among men. For al­though any human being should be possessed of every imaginable perfection and advantage; yet while he lives in society, and abundantly satisfies all his social propensities, from which the sublim­est pleasures of human nature are derived, he re­ceives from mankind such an ample portion of hap­piness, [Page 47] that he is bound to compensate it by every return, which the utmost exertion of his abilities can enable him to make. From his elevated supe­riority he is thus obliged to descend to the equali­ty of a citizen, and of a man.

In the eye of reason, therefore, and of the Universal Parent, every honest station of life is equally honourable, since they are all but parts of the great social body which his wisdom has planned, and his power preserves. In this view, no human creature is more or less worthy than another, but in as far as he discharges or neglects the part allotted to him, and augments or dimi­nishes the sum of general felicity; or as he occu­pies a place which he is incapable of filling, de­prives others of their just station, snatches, from them the rewards to which they are entitled, or prevents them from performing the duties of the station in which they are placed, and of the sphere in which they move.

The principles above established are widely dif­ferent from those which pride and tyranny em­brace and inculcate. If men are endowed with superior abilities, or raised to an exalted station, they will not easily admit that, between them and their inferiors, the dependence and the obligation [Page 48] are reciprocal. Unless they are distinguished by peculiar generosity of sentiment, they will consi­der it as no very pleasing doctrine that, between the sovereign and the subject, the magistrate and the people, the great and the mean, the rich and the poor, the acute and the dull, the learned and the ignorant, there is no difference but in the possession of different powers, and in the discharge of different offices peculiar to each capacity, and useful to all; and that, if the first have a just de­mand on the second for submission and obedience, for honour and respect, for convenience and ease, the second have as just a claim on them for protec­tion and defence, for the administration of justice, and the preservation of equal liberty, for the sup­ply of their wants and the relief of their distresses, for instruction and good example. Pride and ty­ranny would place, on the one side, all honour and respect, and nothing but disregard and con­tempt, on the other; here, all oppression and vio­lence, and there, all patience and submission; here, all convenience and pleasure, and there, all la­bour and indigence; here, [...] have the smal­lest assistance to be considered as an eternal obliga­tion, and there, the greatest services to pass for indispensible duties. With such sentiments, it is no wonder that the mutual dependence and obli­gation of men should be rejected as a dangerous [Page 49] and odious doctrine, equally subversive of public order, and of private right. Those who think and act in this manner, either making no returns for the benefits they receive from society, or pos­sessing no capacity to make them, are eager to re­present every notion of mutual obligation and e­quality among men, as imaginary and presumptu­ous, and to oblige the world to look on them as its established lords. But such opinions can never retain their influence, when knowledge has begun to make any progress, and mankind to understand their own nature and dignity. The bodies of men can never be enslaved, when their minds are free; and the most diligent care of all despots, of what­ever rank or denomination, ever has been, and ever must be, to keep mankind in ignorance. As soon as knowledge diffuses her light over the dun­geon in which they are inchained, the doors are thrown open, and their chains fall off. In fact, pride and tyranny, by destroying that mutual obligation, and that just equality which we have now established, sap the very pillars which sup­port greatness and display splendour. For, if there is no mutual obligation, no parity of right, then power, on the one hand, and weakness on the other, are the only bonds of social or civil uni­on. It is easy to see where, in such circumstan­ces, the greatest power will be found; whether [Page 50] in the hands of the poor, the mean, the illiterate; or in those of the rich, the great, the learned, and the ingenious. But if the grand principle of equa­lity of obligation, and of mutual dependence, is adopted in opinion, as it is established in nature, if stations and offices are neither unjustly usurped, nor their duties perfidiously and weakly performed, the obligation to obedience and submission is as strong on inferiors, as that of justice and disinte­rested zeal for the public good is on rulers and magistrates; and the honor obtained by distin­guished abilities is equally due to their possessors, as the fruits of their honest labour are due to the lower orders of the community. This principle places the fabric of society on a firm and lasting foundation, and all the parts of the building, how­ever different in point of splendour and ornament, are so closely connected, and so necessary to the whole, that none of them can be removed or de­faced, without injuring the beauty or the solidity of the structure. This equally balances all the parts and members of the social body, makes pre-emi­nence itself emerge from common interest, and again depresses that separate independence which pre-eminence would assume, by referring it to that collective power from which it is wholly derived. A constant balance, and reaction of obligation and duty, is thus maintained through all the depart­ments [Page 51] of society, similar to what we observe in nature. As exhalations and vapours from the ocean and the lower parts of the earth, resting on the tops of mountains, form the springs whence are derived the rivers that water and fertilize the different regions of the globe, and return at last into the ocean, and thus a constant circulation is maintained; so the more elevated sphere of socie­ty derive their political existence and energy from the general mass, and, if properly filled, diffuse through the whole social body a salutary influence, which again serves to maintain their dignity and splendour. The individuals that occupy these spheres, detached from society, and considered merely as individuals of the human race, are en­titled to no distinction or superiority, but what arises from corporeal or mental qualities, which are the distinctions of nature. But, viewed in their connection with the political body, they claim their pre-eminence and power, on the same principle by which society is held together, name­ly, that the general good must limit the pretensi­ons of individuals.

This is that equality of mankind, which has been so often asserted, but is seldom well under­stood—an equality which the proud and tyrannical disdain, because it opposes their selfishness or in­dolence—an [Page 52] equality which turbulent and design­ing men are fain to abuse as an engine for over­turning regularity and government, and for in­troducing that anarchy in the midst of which they themselves are to rise. It is an equality which im­plies subordination—an equality of wants, with a diversity of means of supplying them—an equality of obligation, with different modes of discharging it. It is an equality which, by rendering all equal­ly necessary, makes all, who faithfully discharge their duties, equally honourable in the sight of God; but, by requiring higher and lower stations, and various distinctions and spheres, establishes different degrees of respectability and honour a­mong men. It is an equality which degrades none but the tyrant, the ruffian, the thief, the volup­tuary, and the sluggard; and exalts all, but these, to the ennobling dignity of constituent members of the grand community of mankind, and of fel­low labourers with God in advancing the felicity of his moral and intellectual creation.

Not less absurd, than pernicious, therefore, is that levelling notion, which confounds all distinc­tions and ranks, annihilates subordination, and destroys that just equality which is founded in na­ture, and in human happiness. While this fran­tic opinion is directly contrary to the appointment [Page 53] of God in the establishment of society, and horri­bly destructive in its consequences, it commonly tends, like every other extravagant and vicious passion, to frustrate its own gratification. Taking licentiousness for liberty, it becomes the greatest promoter of despotism. For, as nothing has brought religion more into disrepute, than bigo­try, fanaticism, and hypocrisy, which have so of­ten assumed that venerable and sacred name; and as nothing has brought so much disgrace on philosophy, both in ancient and modern times, as the profligate lives of pretended philosophers; so licentiousness, appearing under the disguise of liber­ty, has a direct tendency to render it either odious or contemptible. The tyrannical oppressors of their fellow men, and their servile abettors, ea­gerly lay hold of the horrid excesses which licen­tiousness produces, and at which they secretly re­joice, as infidels delight in the corruptions of reli­gion; paint them with the deepest colours of an inflamed imagination; and ascribe them with tri­umph to those principles of true liberty, to which they are so repugnant in their origin, and so per­nicious in their consequences. The ignorant mul­titude, incapable of distinguishing appearances from realities, hastily admit both the assertion and its inference, and seek refuge from arnarchy in the chains of despotism. The wise, however and the [Page 54] good, will equally guard against the wild decla­mation of the demagogue, and the crafty insinua­tions of the tyrant, will hold fast those eternal principles of equity which God has impressed on their souls, and, if they cannot evince their truth, or inculcate their practice, on mankind, will deplore the blindness and the corruption of their species, and pray that the Father of light may at last un­fold a day of knowledge and serenity, when the benignant voice of truth shall neither be stifled by the mandate of tyranny, nor drowned by the ac­clamations of tumult, when the power of oppres­sion shall be extinguished together with the desire of it; when freedom shall be established on the basis of subordination, and secured by obedience to law; when men shall be attached to justice by the permanent blessings of security and peace.

CHAPTER VI. Some Circumstances of EQUALITY not yet considered.

HAVING, in the preceding Chapters, explain­ed the chief foundation on which it may be assert­ed that all men are equal, in as far as relates to every social and civil duty, I shall now briefly point out several other respects in which the equa­lity of mankind is farther evident.

I. All men are endowed with the same frame of body, and with the same general constitution of mind. Notwithstanding the diversities, which obtain among individuals, in point of higher or lower degrees of excellence in any of the original faculties of our nature, all the species, excepting some uncommon and monstrous instances, is cha­racterised by the same members and organs of body, and by the same faculties, propensities, and affec­tions of soul. Does the richest, the most power­ful, the most beautiful, the most ingenious among [Page 56] the sons of men, feel less the sense of hunger and thirst, of cold and pain, than those of contrary de­scriptions; or are these last less distinguished than the former, by the general construction and or­gans of the human frame; Do not the rich and the poor, the obscure and the elevated, come into the world in the same state of imbecility and wretchedness? Is the infant of opulent parents possessed of greater vigour, or does he require less the assistance of those on whose care he is immedi­ately cast, than the infant of the peasant or the beggar? Can he already discern and provide his food, use his limbs, defend himself from danger, and, by his hereditary independence, vindicate the true superiority of his condition? So far is any of these from being the case, that, if there is any difference, in these respects, between him and the infant of meaner rank, it is all in favour of the latter. This, from the strong and healthy consti­tution of his parents, brings along with him a frame naturally vigorous and robust, and requiring only the most ordinary care for its nourishment, its preservation, and its final maturity. The other often inherits from those who begat him a sickly and slender constitution, which the utmost atten­tion and assiduity can hardly preserve from ex­tinction in the moment of birth, and afterwards more frequently debilitate than strengthen.

[Page 57]Again, the same natural principles, propensities, and affections, operate on all mankind with differ­ent degrees of force, according to their different situations. All men, of whatever rank or condi­tion, are strongly actuated by a principle of self-preservation, by the love of liberty, by the de­sire of pleasure, and an aversion to pain, by the love of society, and a dislike of solitude, by the parental, conjugal, and filial attachments, by a sense of honour, by resentment of injuries, and by a certain affection for their country. None are destitute of some perception of beauty, order, and magnificence in the works of nature or art, and none, but such as are monstrously corrupted, are insensible to the eternal distinctions of right and wrong, of virtue and vice, of truth and error, in human judgments and actions. Even the most stupid, ignorant and perverse of the human species differ, in this respect, from the brutes, that, as they remember the past, and anticipate the future, so they are capable of forming and pursuing some plan of life, of conceiving some system of happi­ness which they desire to attain, or some image of misery which they endeavour to avoid. No human being, therefore, enjoys or suffers like the inferior animals, according to the blind impulses of appetite, or the unanticipated impressions of sense, but has some previous deliberation and choice, with [Page 58] regard to the objects of desire and aversion. Every mortal also feels that, by the birth-right of human nature, he is entitled to certain rights, of which he cannot be deprived without ceasing to be a man, or without envying the condition of the inferior creatures. These are the common features of humanity which characterise all the species, and establish among them so many points of equality.

II. All men are equal in being equally exposed to vicissitudes, and to death. To attempt any proof of these facts would be nugatory and ridicu­lous. But the consequences to be deduced from them, with respect to the light in which the differ­ent orders and descriptions of men ought to view each other, are not so evident, or at least possess not that influence over the heart, to which they are in reason entitled. For, if the most exalt­ed of mankind must, as well as the lowest, submit to the stroke of death, and moulder the prey of worms in the grave, if this event equally hangs over his head every moment, and, when it hap­pens, must strip him of every external distinction; can any pretensions be more absurd than those of pride, which are solely founded on a pre-eminence so transient and uncertain? For any one, there­fore, to value himself on such transitory distincti­ons, is as ridiculous, as it would be for a traveller [Page 59] to imagine himself proprietor of every field through which he passed.

Besides, the stations which discriminate the dif­ferent orders of society, are by no means perma­nently attached to any number of individuals that may now enjoy them, or to their descendants. They are subject to many vicissitudes, and have a constant tendency to change. As the parts of ma­terial nature are in perpetual fluctuation, and are sometimes altered by secret and silent decays, sometimes by violent convulsions, by tempests, hurricanes, inundations, earthquakes and volcanos, so the various orders of society are exposed to constant changes, partly by sudden and violent agitations, partly by those secret, but certain causes, which are continually operating the exalta­tion or the depression of men. Foreign wars or do­mestic commotions, signal calamities or uncommon prosperity, illustrious virtues or flagrant vices, pro­duce the most wonderful alterations in human for­tunes. Leaving the public transactions of our own times, which furnish most striking proofs of this fact, what numberless instances croud into the mind while it revolves the events of ancient or modern history!

There is, besides, in every station a certain ten­dency to change, and the same causes that produc­ed the elevation of the higher orders of men, are imperceptibly operating also in favour of others placed in inferior conditions. As a projectile, when it has reached its highest point of elevation, begins immediately to descend, and continues its course downwards with an accelerated velocity; so there appears to be a certain point of exaltation, beyond which human grandeur cannot proceed, and which, by being the termination of splendour, becomes the beginning of decline, and of final pre­cipitation. On the other hand, as the seed of a tree, from the moment it is dropped into the ground, is continually expanding, and receiving [Page 61] from the earth new additions to its growth, till it mingle its branches with the clouds, and cover the soil with its shade; in lik manner, among the lower orders of men, there are evident principles of increase and amelioration of their condition, which fail not to operate successfully when they are favoured by opportunities.

For, what are the vices which are aptest to in­fect elevated and and affluent circumstances; and what the virtues which an humble and hard lot most easily engenders and cherishes? In the for­mer, we often behold pride, which excites indig­nation and hatred, and, consequently, combinati­ons to repress it. We behold luxury and extrava­gance, which waste rapidly the most splendid for­tunes, and incapacitate for exertion and activity. We behold carelessness and inattention, which al­low people's affairs to run into disorder, and oc­casion irreparable confusion at last. We often behold extortion, oppression, and flagrant abuse of power, in order to retrieve broken circumstan­ces, which hasten the ruin they are employed to prevent, and produce indelible disgrace.

In an humble and severe lot, we frequently see humility and modesty, which never fail to concili­ate complacency. We see patience and frugality, [Page 62] of which the former renders the hardest conditi­on tolerable, and the latter draws ease from pe­nury. We see industry, and a successful exertion of abilities, which first make men useful and indis­pensibly necessary even to their superiors; then bring them into notice and regard; and, lastly, raise them to trust and affluence. Thus, while those who are placed in the highest stations, supposing they have no exertions to make, because they have reached the pinnacle of human greatness, are verging towards decline and obscu­rity, those who move in an inferior sphere, urged by their necessities, or stimulated by their ambiti­on, are making constant efforts to rise, watching every favourable opportunity of success, and si­lently climbing the steep from which the former are descending. Where are now those illustrious families that occupy such a remarkable place in ancient history? They are not surely all extinct; their descendants, doubtless, exist somewhere up­on the earth. But they are confounded with the general mass of mankind, while others have arisen to shine in the sphere from which they have de­parted. It is thus that Divine Providence, which has, for the wisest reasons, established, an inequa­lity of stations and talents among men, has by al­lowing their virtues and vices to operate their na­tural effects of alternate depression and exaltation, [Page 63] restored the balance, which disappears from the view of superficial observers.

III. If we justly estimate the advantages and inconveniencies of every condition of life, we shall find that they nearly balance each other, that the sum of happiness, shared among the human species, is divided in pretty equitable portions; and that equality of enjoyment is another ground, on which the different ranks of society, if not the individuals that are placed in them, are on a level. The grand difference, in this respect, consists in what is appropriated to no station or fortune, but is e­qually open to them all—internal disposition and character; which it is unquestionable, may be dis­played in their greatest excellence, and enjoyed in their highest perfection, in the lowest, as well as in the most elevated, sphere. As the different regions of the globe, however removed from the Equator, or the Poles, enjoy equal measures of light and darkness, though distributed in different manners; so the different orders of society possess equal portions of felicity, and are exposed to equal pains, though the modes of enjoyment and suffer­ing be diversified. If the honours of an exalted station are greater than those of an humble one, its duties are also more difficult, if its virtues are more splendid, its temptations are more enticing, [Page 64] and its vices more conspicuous; if its enjoyments are more refined, its sufferings are more acute, and its afflictions more durable. Is it supposed that the burden of labour is heavier than that of indo­lence, or the pains of indigence greater than those of sensuality? Consider that health often smiles, on the cheek of poverty, while disease deforms the face of opulence. Do any imagine that the solicitude of providing daily subsistence is greater than that which attends the improvement, or the security, of an extensive estate—that the real wants of na­ture afford more anxiety and care, than the ima­ginary demands of extravagance—that the evils which are really felt, are greater than those which distempered fancy creates?—let such consi­der the discontent, the uneasiness, the dejection, the wayward humours, and the sullen gloom, that so often haunt the great and the wealthy, and acknowledge that sleep visits the couch of straw, and flies from the bed of down.

Do any imagine that it is more difficult to pur­sue, with constancy and firmness, the rugged and thorny paths of the humble vale of life, than to maintain the elevated posts of dignity and honour, in the midst of intrigue, of competition, of cla­mour, and of all the uncertainty of favor? Let them reflect on the solicitudes and the terrors of [Page 65] the public governor, when unsuccessful issues at­tend his administration, when the tide of popular approbation begins to ebb, when his enemies spread discontent through the land, represent him to the people as the author of their calamities, and rouse them to sacrifice him as the victim of their fury. The storm often bursts on the palace, when it pas­ses inoffensively over the cottage!

IV. All men are equal in having some peculiar duty to discharge, some peculiar advantages for the exhibition of corresponding virtues, some pe­culiar temptations to corresponding vices, and in being placed in a course of probation for a future and final state. If the duties of each station are properly discharged, its virtues proportionably displayed, and its temptations surmounted, it is difficult to say whether the greatest praise is due to the superior or inferior ranks of society. If the duties or the virtues of either are neglected, or its temptations allowed to prevail, the blame is equal on both sides, although the punishments are frequently distributed very unequally under human governments. That all men are at pre­sent placed in a preparatory state for a future ex­istence, both natural and revealed religion concur in evincing. It is no less evident, from the ex­ternal principles by which the divine government [Page 66] is administered, that the characters which men have acquired in the present period of being, will be the only measures of their future fate, and that all those distinctions, which are wholly ex­ternal, will then disappear forever! If any re­gard is then paid to the different stations which men have occupied here below, it will only be in order to determine how far they have discharged the duties of them, and what degree of merit, or demerit, is to be assigned to each individual, according to the talents he possessed, and the op­portunities he enjoyed for the practice of every virtue. Here all men are placed on the most per­fect equality, have the same hopes, the same fears, the same pleas to urge, the same titles to produce, or rather are levelled by the same incapacity of all merit, but what is derived from the clemency of the Great Judge, operating through the plan of salvation he has established. With his eyes turned to this scene, with any adequate impression of this awful consummation on his heart, (and mad must he be to whose mind such thoughts are never pre­sent!) can any one deny the equality of mankind, nor perceive the empty titles, and tinsel splendors and idle pageants of this transitory period, swim­ming before his sight, and finally disappearing, like the dreams which occupy his fancy in sleep, but fade and are forgotten when he opens his eyes, and again enjoys the reality of things.

CHAPTER I. Of the MANNER in which we acquire our NOTION of RIGHTS.

IN the discussion of moral and metaphysical subjects, hardly any thing has occasioned greater obscurity, and, of consequence, more violent dis­putes, than the ambiguity of terms, and the vague and indeterminate ideas annexed to them by dif­ferent parties. Of this no word can afford a more striking instance than the term right, especially when applied to denote a moral capacity to act, [Page 70] to possess, or to demand, in certain circumstances. Of this the notion will be found to be as various, as the philosophical or religious systems which men have adopted, the professions which they have embraced, the stations which they occupy, or the company they frequent. Although peo­ple may agree in some general and indefinite no­tions of right, yet, in the peculiar ideas they en­tertain with regard to its application to all the particular objects of human action and pursuit, it will be found that their conceptions are not redu­cible to any determinate standard. We are not, on this account, however, to imagine that the rights of men are indefinable, or that there are not general classes to which they may be reduced. For, although the private rights of individuals must vary according to their different circumstan­ces and relations, there are still certain and per­manent principles on which they are founded, and from which they must be deduced, in order to distinguish them from those powers which fraud secretly obtains, or violence openly usurps. Un­less this were the case, laws and obligations would be unmeaning words, and power the only arbiters of right and wrong.

Without entering at present into any abstruse and refined speculations concerning the foundation [Page 71] of moral obligation, I shall only observe, that we seem, in general, to denominate that right which has a tendency to promote the universal happiness of mankind, or that of the individual himself, when it is not repugnant to the more extensive interest, whether of the whole species, or of the smaller communities into which the species is di­vided. To these two general heads, namely, ten­dency to general, and tendency to particular hap­piness, when properly limited, it will be found that every thing just, and honorable, and praise-worthy, in human sentiments and conduct is ulti­mately referable. Whoever does, or possesses, or demands, what is conducive to the common good, or to his own interest in consistency with this, that he should do, or possess, or demand, we say he has a right to do, to possess or to demand, it.

It is evident, that the only notions we can form to ourselves of happiness must be derived from those original principles of our nature, by which certain objects are constituted the means of satis­faction and pleasure, and others the causes of un­easiness and pain. The former become, on that account, desirable, and the latter, disagreeable and odious. By implanting these desires and aversions in the soul of man, the Creator evidently intend­ed that they should be indulged within the limits [Page 72] he has prescribed to them, and, in order to discover these limits, has superadded the noble faculty of reason. Accordingly, there seems annexed to every natural desire and propensity of the heart, a certain feeling of a right to its indulgence. The original propensities and desires spring up sponta­neously in the soul, and impel it to action. In children, these are the first stimulants to motion and activity, and, as they are still undirected by the higher principles of our nature, and by the improvements of experience, constitute their on­ly notions of right. As the inferior animals are immediately carried by nature towards those ob­jects which are adapted to satisfy their instinctive principles; so men, in the first period of their ex­istence, greedily desire and seize whatever their appetites or passions point out to them as agreea­ble, and consider it as an injury to withhold from them the indulgence; but such is the beautiful or­der established in the human constitution, that ma­ny of these propensities limit and balance each o­ther, so that the immoderate indulgence of one prevents that satisfaction of others, which is also a necessary ingredient of happiness. Different pains and inconveniencies, soon experienced from imbridled propensities, suggest the necessity of mo­deration and self-command. The pleasures and the advantages of society attach men to their spe­cies, [Page 73] and point out, at the same time, the necessi­ty of regulating their conduct in such a manner as to prevent their desires and pursuits from encroach­ing on the equally natural desires and pursuits of others.

Reason, recollecting the past, and anticipating the future, establishes such rules of action and en­joyment as unite the perfection and happiness of the individual with the general interest of the species, and convert the harmonious movements of the whole social body into the most efficacious means of promoting the happiness of all its mem­bers of whatever rank or degree. The moral faculty, surveying such a beautiful and salutary arrangement, sanctions it with its approbation, and decrees that every human being is bound to act and to enjoy in conformity to the principles of this system. The various relations and circumstances of men being considered and defined, general max­ims are formed, which are denominated the laws of nature. As the human constitution is the work of the supreme Creator, whatever is, by just in­ference, deducible from this constitution, as a rule of conduct to man, is as justly held to be a divine law, as if the Omnipotent Legislator had proclaim­ed it with the most audible voice. From these general laws, various rights are deduced compe­tent [Page 74] to men, whether as inherent in their com­mon nature, or as belonging to those peculiar re­lations in which they are placed, by the necessary arrangements of society.

In this manner, the notions of the different rights of men are acquired.

CHAPTER II. The two grand DIVISIONS of RIGHTS which flow from the Natural EQUALITY of MANKIND.

FROM the short deduction contained in the preceding chapter, joined to what has been esta­blished in the first book, it is evident that there are certain natural rights, which cannot be infringed, without overturning the foundations of human society, and that there are others which be­long only to certain descriptions of men, in consequence of that social order which is necessary for the general felicity. The for­mer are to be considered as the original conditions of the social compact; the latter, as the means by which it is to be executed; and both flow from that idea, of equality of obligation which we have above illustrated.

In the first place, there are certain principles so strongly interwoven with the human frame, so intimately blended with its essence, so efficient of all that can be called human, that the violation of them cannot be regarded in any other light [Page 76] than in that of a degradation, nay, an entire ex­tinction of the distinctive attributes of the human character. Of consequence, every man stipulates, by entering into society with his species, that the enjoyments grounded on these principles, or, in other words, the rights which attach to them, as the gifts of God to his rational creatures, shall be maintained to him inviolate; and reserves to him­self the privilege of defending them at all hazards, whenever it is attempted to wrest them from him. For, as every human being is a constituent mem­ber of the social body, he is, while he discharges the duties incident to his peculiar capacity, enti­tled, equally with every other, to the grand pre­rogatives of human nature, which civil society is intended to maintain and improve. He is as ne­cessary, as the most distinguished of mankind, to the general perfection and felicity, and he contri­butes to it that portion which his abilities enable him to furnish. The rights, therefore, which are indispensibly necessary to the preservation and happiness of each individual, in whatever rank or situation he may be placed, must equally belong to all, and can never suffer the smallest diminuti­on from any claims or prerogatives attached to the distinctions of fortune, of rank, or of talents. They are the necessary appendages of that equa­lity, which subsists among all men amidst the diver­sities [Page 77] which society and civilisation have intro­duced.

I shall first briefly enumerate and explain the in­herent and original rights of human nature, which equally belong to all men without exception; and, secondly, those adventitious rights, which belong only to particular descriptions of men, as characterised, whether by particular talents, or by particular situations in civil life, but equally to all to whom these descriptions are applicable.

CHAPTER III. Of the ORIGINAL and INHERENT RIGHTS of HUMAN NATURE.

I. EVERY innocent member of society has a perfect right to life, and to the integrity of his body. No principle is more deeply engraved in the constitution of all animals, than that of self-preservation. Every living creature has an ab­horrence of dissolution, and a strong aversion from pain, which is a stimulant still more power­ful than the love of pleasure; because the remo­val of evil is the first step towards enjoyment. No­thing excites the detestation of mankind more than an unprovoked attempt on life, or even violent as­sault, when no more is intended than to wound, or to mutilate. Besides, no man can be useful to society, but in as far as his life is preserved and se­cured, and bodily health and vigour are necessary to discharge the most important social duties. The right to these is sacred and inviolable, and, when­ever they are unjustly assaulted, every man is en­titled [Page 79] to defend them even by the slaughter of the aggressor, when every other means of security is removed. In this right is evidently included that of the preservation of chastity when attacked.

II. Every man has a perfect right to the full fruits of his own honest ingenuity and labour. The Creator, by bestowing on every person a cer­tain portion of corporeal or mental ability, plain­ly intended that it should be exercised. To this exercise man are impelled by the stimulants of pleasure, and of pain. Reason, which enables mankind to anticipate futurity, suggests, from the recollection of former wants, the necessity of pro­viding for them when they shall again recur. The natural productions, which may be render­ed subservient to the use of man, necessarily be­come the property of the first occupier, because, if they were appropriated to none, they would be useless to all; at least; such of them as could af­ford no present use would remain neglect­ed and unimproved. For no man will bestow la­bour and time on that from which he is to receive no profit. Men are strongly affected by a tender solicitude for their offspring and near connections, to whom they wish to impart a share of their su­perfluities during life, and, at death, to transmit their entire possessions. They are inflamed with [Page 80] a thirst of honour and applause, and eager to ob­tain them by the display of useful, of elegant, or of sublime, talents. Besides, while men mutual­ly supply each other with what they want, for an equivalent, society is more closely cemented by a constant interchange of the various products of industry, of art, and of wealth; and, by the different conditions of men in point of fortune, opportunity is, as above observed, afforded for the exercise of many virtues, which could not other­wise exist. Man's double capacity, as an individu­al, and as a member of society, is thus best pre­served, and his selfish, as well as his social, pro­pensities are gratified. In fact, the same means that enable him most amply to indulge the former, also qualify him for satisfying most effectually the latter. By the exercise and cultivation of all his faculties, and by the improvement of the opportu­nities he enjoys, he best promotes his own private happiness, and, in the same manner, he contri­butes most to the public good. As the perfection and solidity of all the parts of a building produce the solidity and perfection of the whole; so, in hu­man society, the prosperity of all its members in their different relations and circumstances, produ­ces the sum of general happiness. Notwithstand­ing therefore, the Utopian system of a community of goods, which some political projectors, fixing [Page 81] their eyes on partial views of advantage and in­convenience, have endeavoured to recommend, and some smaller societies have exemplified, it is undoubted that both public and private happiness require that the right of property should be sa­credly maintained.

This right implies not only that possessions, [...] lawfully acquired, should remain the invio­late property of their possessors, but also that every honest and fair mean of acquiring should be equally open to all who are placed in the same circumstances. It requires that a fair field be granted for the exercise of every useful and orna­mental talent, and that its natural rewards be not with held from it. Partial and narrow systems of policy, whereby the interest of a few is only consulted, frequently cramp genius, and restrain industry, to the great prejudice of the common good.

These, however, with whatever pretexts they may be coloured, are justly to be accounted viola­tions of the sacred right of property, which re­gards not only what men already honestly possess, but also, what they may honestly obtain. The powers of their bodies, and the faculties of their minds, are the only property which men receive [Page 82] from nature. The exercise of these on the vari­ous natural productions, introduced the adventiti­ous rights to these objects, and inheritance and contracts transferred them from their original pro­prietors to their successors. But the foundation of all property is the common right to the earth and its productions, which God has granted to man­kind, together with the peculiar appropriation which every one made of some portion of these to himself, by the use of his mental and corporeal powers. It is absurd, therefore, that adventitious rights should be sacred, while the primary means of acquiring these rights may be wantonly cir­cumscribed.

III. All men have an equal right to a fair and honest character, till it has been proved that they have justly forfeited it. The love of character is deeply implanted in the human breast, and as it can only be extinguished with the extinction of in­tegrity; so it is strong in proportion to the strength of virtuous and elevated sentiments. The loss of reputation, wounding one of the most lively feel­ings of the human heart, is one of the greatest calamities in life. With the loss of character ma­ny other evils are unavoidably connected, which, while they destroy the private happiness of the individual, also frustrate his public utility. The [Page 83] success of a person in the world, whether in the improvement of his fortune, or in the exercise of his abilities, depends greatly on the opinion which is entertained of his integrity. His usefulness to society depends chiefly on the confidence which his fellow men can repose in him. When any man's honesty is questioned, his talents, far from being objects of complacency, are converted into sources of terror, and mankind naturally combine in or­der to deprive them of those opportunities of ex­ertion, which seem to threaten their own safety.

Fame, or distinguished consideration and respect, belong only to eminent abilities, virtues or stations. But the character of honesty belongs equally to all who faithfully discharge every social and civil obligation. Those who, in every situation and circumstance, whether of exaltation or of obscuri­ty, carry along with them purity of heart and in­tegrity of conduct, meet on the equal footing of good men, and are equally entitled to all the en­joyment, advantage, and consideration, which that character justly claims, and cannot fail to possess, if not clouded by misrepresentation, or stained by calumny. The most illustrious abilities, or the most exalted station, give not, of themselves, a better title to a fair and spotless character, than [Page 84] the most moderate parts, or the most humble cir­cumstances. This right, till it is lost by vicious action, extends to all conditions and ranks with­out exception.

CHAPTER IV. THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.

IV. EVERY man has a perfect right to liberty, or to act in whatever manner he pleases, provided he offers no injury to others, and violates no law enacted by the public authority of the civil society to which he belongs. As soon as we form the no­tion of a rational agent, freedom immediately en­ters into the conception, and all happiness and all virtue rest on its foundation. For, as virtue consists in the proper use of all our faculties, or in that conduct which is suited to the human na­ture and condition; so happiness consists in the possession of those enjoyments, of which nature has rendered us capable, and which the right use of reason enables us to obtain. But how can he, who is deprived of the power of regulating his own actions, and of determining and directing his pursuits, either exert his faculties in such a man­ner as is best adapted to their ends, or pursue those enjoyments, with the greatest vigour, to which [Page 86] he has assigned the highest value; how can he, who is subjected to the arbitrary will of another, contribute his portion to the common order and felicity; which results from the combined efforts of all directed to this glorious and comprehensive end—from the combined exertions of knowledge, wisdom, skill, ingenuity, dexterity, art, labour, resolution, and vigour, shared among all the mem­bers of the social body? Suppress the just exertion of any of these separate portions, just so much is cut off from the general perfection and happiness, and, while individuals are oppressed, the public suffers. Subject them to the arbitrary will of one, or of a few, all the light, and invention, and ener­gy, which result from the free, but well regulat­ed, efforts of all acting in harmonious concert are gone—all that variety of talent, of design, of pur­suit, and of operation, which embellish, and im­prove, and strengthen, human society, is extin­guished—and the whole social mass, subordinated to one feeble and impotent will, ever influenced by narrow and contracted views, or by cloudy pas­sions, either pines in a passive lethargy, or, if it is called into action by extraordinary stimulants, exhausts its strength by its efforts, while their produce is wholly drawn off by the privileged part; similar to those aged trunks on which we behold a few of the higher branches retaining their [Page 87] sap and verdure, while the tree itself is rotten, and sinking speedily to dust. Thus the preserva­tion of liberty is necessary to the attainment of pub­lic, as well as of private, felicity; nor can it ever be supposed that any human being, whose judg­ment is found, and who has not been corrupted by long habits of servitude, would either expli­citly or tacitly relinquish what is necessary to eve­ry enjoyment of human nature, and without which, society itself is his greatest curse. In short, liberty and human nature are inseparable; to destroy the former, is to annihilate the latter —is to annihilate every notion of duty, and vir­tue, and happiness, beyond what is merely sensu­al and brutish.

It is no wonder then, that the love of freedom should be strong and vigorous in the breast, in pro­portion to the elevation of sentiment, the sense of honour, the regard for virtue, with which each individual is endowed, and that, by every generous and feeling soul, slavery should be deem­ed the greatest of human evils. Base, indeed, and corrupted, and broken by habits of servile subjection, must that man be, who can consider himself as the property of his fellow creature, and feels no indignation at the tyrant who reduc­es him to this despicable condition, and who, de­grading [Page 88] the rational creation of God, which he has first debased in his own soul, outrages heaven while he domineers upon earth. Few of mankind are so degenerate as to have lost all sense of liber­ty, and of the native dignity of man. For al­though they may submit in silence to a despot, yet they abhor him in their hearts: and, when they can do it with safety, would lay hold of the first opportunity of shaking off the yoke. The named of master and slave annihilate all claims of duty▪ all voluntary offerings of affection, and exhibit man to man in a state of hostility, where power is the only right, and terror the only obligation ^*.

[Page 89]Notwithstanding this aversion to servitude, and this love of freedom, so strongly implanted in the human breast, it must be confessed, that there is in mankind both an astonishing propensity to tyrannize, and a wonderful facility in submit­ting to enormous power. The freedom which men claim to themselves, they are not willing to grant to others, and the principle which inspires the wish of independence, produces the exercise of oppression. The love of pre-eminence and power rejects competition and equality; fond at­tachment to one's own opinions stimulates men to prescribe them as rules to others; possession con­stantly aims at enlarging its bounds: elevation and authority have a perpetual tendency upwards, and, in their ascent, depress those parts through which they move—the generality of mankind, long accustomed to admire splendour and wealth, or eminent talents, readily submit to their domi­nion; and voluntary homage often begins the sub­jection, which is at last exacted as a right. Ha­bits of servitude debilitate the sense of freedom, and the rigours of oppression are frequently ne­cessary to rouse it. It is thus that the love of in­dependence stimulates to encroach on the rights of others, and that such encroachment is so fre­quently successful.

[Page 90]On this account, all civil liberty is limited by these two conditions, abstinence from injury to others, and submission to the laws enacted by the authority of political society. Whoever injures others is not a free man, but a tyrant, and, if he is free, others are slaves ^*. As it is the grand de­sign of civil society to secure men from that in­justice and violence which would soon subject all to the most powerful, it is necessary that the pub­lic authority should circumscribe the actions of each individual. While all are equally subject to this authority, and the collective power of the whole community is centered in this point, it fol­lows as a necessary consequence of that equality, which consists in the relation that all equally bear to the social body, that the actions of each should be directed and limited by this relation. No mem­ber is subject to another, considered as a member, but every member is subject to the whole in its collective capacity, and, when this capacity is trans­ferred to any part, or to any number of parts of the social body, these deriving their pre-eminence and authority from the whole society, have a right to govern all its members, while in every instance [Page 91] in which they appear as members themselves, and act, not in a public, but in a private, capacity, they are equally subject to the common will, ex­pressed by public laws, with all the other mem­bers of the community. In civil society, it is this alone that maintains that equality which subsists among all its different members, notwithstanding the diversities which fortune, rank, or talents, have introduced. For, as these only diversify the man­ner in which each is to contribute his portion to the public good; so, when all are equally subject to common laws, all are levelled by this common subjection, and every one is restricted to that line of conduct, which is necessary for the preservati­on and welfare of the political system. Unlimit­ed freedom is unattainable not only in civil society, but in every species of association whatever, be­cause the actions of every individual of the society are limited by the actions of all the rest, and by the general design and conditions of association itself. The grand design of every social union is to ob­tain the co-operation of all its members for the common good. It is hence incumbent on every one of them, so to regulate his conduct, as to con­tribute to the end proposed. Nay, perfect liberty, if, by that term, we understand the unrestrained indulgence of every desire and propensity, is as inconsistent with the rational constitution of each [Page 92] individual, as it is with the principles of civil union. For there is an order established by nature among all our desires and passions; and reason is given both to discover and to maintain it. As the violator of civil order ceases to be a citizen, and becomes a public enemy, so he who violates the order of the moral and rational nature ceases to be a man, de­generates into a brute, and is the destroyer of his own happiness. As a man, he only is free, who, delivered from the yoke of passion, freely follows the dictates of his nobler faculties, and indulges every natural propensity in consistency with men­tal order. In like manner, civil society is free, when delivered from arbitrary power, in what­ever shape it may exist, all its members are placed under the empire and dominion of laws, enforcing the grand principles of political union, and equal­ly binding on the legislators themselves as on the people. If any are raised above law, or enjoy privileges and prerogatives, which have no rela­tion to the public good, and are burthensome to the community, in proportion as they are advanta­geous, to the possessors of them, the principles of civil union are opposed, political equality is sub­verted, and oppression, more or less grievous ac­cording to the degree of such inequality, is intro­duced.

[Page 93]As the limitation of law is inseparable from the liberty to which every citizen has an incon­testible right; so this right implies that, in every instance, neither contrary to law, nor injurious to others, every innocent person, who has reached the years of maturity, and has not voluntarily subjected his actions to the controul of others, should enjoy the power of acting as he pleases. Persons of sound judgment, and of generous sen­timents, will, in the use of this freedom, consult not only their own pleasure and advantage, but also, the felicity of all to whom their influence may extend. Their pursuits will be characterized by a dignity and beneficence, which will point them out as the ornaments of society, and the objects of general admiration and gratitude. Such will find their most delightful enjoyments in their own highest improvement, and in their most extensive utility to others. Men of inferior capacity, or of a meaner turn of mind, will chiefly devote them­selves to sensual pleasures, and to selfish pursuits; and thus with-hold from the public a great deal of benefit which they might otherwise contribute. On this account, however, they are not to be de­prived of their liberty, as long as they remain within the bounds of that innocence which, how­ever deficient in a moral and religious light, is sufficient for the maintenance of public peace, and [Page 94] of civil and political order. They are not amen­able to human, but to divine justice; and must be called to account, not in the present, but in a fu­ture, world. Argument, persuasion, and exam­ple, may be employed; and every good man will use them to the utmost of his power, in order to diffuse virtue and happiness among his species. But to use violence for this purpose, is both to disappoint the end, and to exhibit an instance of that folly which is reprobated in others. Men may be constrained to be harmless and just, but not to be virtuous and happy!

In the right of liberty is included the free use of private judgment in every thing relative to the regulation of conduct, and especially to religion, as well as the free communication of sentiment within the bounds above stated. It is vain to think of enjoying liberty of action, if the opini­ons by which action is to be directed are not also free. In fact, the right of private judgment can­not be alienated or wrested from any human be­ing by any power on earth. The mind of man, constituted free by its Creator, will ever remain so, in spite of every endeavour to enslave it. Ig­norance may darken, prejudice restrain, or cor­ruption pervert, its powers; still the opinions which it really embraces, are such, as appear to [Page 95] it the best, according to the light which it enjoys. But to conceive any mortal adopting an opinion, for which he perceives no ground, is the most glaring contradiction—is to suppose him admit­ting and rejecting at once the same propositions. With regard to religion, in particular, the right of private judgment, and the freedom of consci­ence, are to be maintained, as necessarily connect­ed with the equality of all men, above establish­ed. For, although religion ever has been, and ever must be, the strongest bond of society, yet the strength of this bond depends on the united evidence of the religious opinions which are adopt­ed, and on the sincerity with which they are em­braced. It is only when religious opinions are both true in themselves, and ingenuously professed, that they can exert any auspicious influence on the actions of men.

Now, to perceive truth is the operation of the understanding. To embrace it with becoming zeal, and to obey its dictates with undeviating constancy, is the operation of the heart. The understanding may be enlightened by reason, the heart may be affected by persuasion, and, in order that either may be produced, perfect freedom is necessary. To convince or to persuade by vio­lence, is the greatest of absurdities, is a manifest [Page 96] impossibility; and when there is neither conviction nor persuasion, where can religion subsist? Place it where it can only reside—in the understanding and the heart; it eludes all constraint. Remove it from this habitation, it loses its salutary influ­ence.

As religion, therefore, must, from its very na­ture, be free, no man can have any right to dictate to the conscience of another. All men are equally entitled to serve God, and all are equally bound to serve him in spirit and in truth. No man can serve him with another's spirit; and no man can discern truth with another's understanding. To subject religion to constraint, is, of consequence, to destroy its essence, and to annihilate its salutary tendency. Enthusiasm and bigotry, whose cha­racter it is to erect their own opinions as standards for all the world, and to violate the rights of con­science, never fail, if they are successful, to give birth to hypocrisy, as the heir to their usurped dominion. Hence it is easy to account for the small influence which religious opinions have on the conduct of their professors, while pure and un­defiled religion ought naturally to produce the most salutary effects not only in rendering men wise unto [...], but in forming them to the practice of every [...] and civil virtue. Religion [Page 97] is either believed to be something very different from what it is, to consist merely in forms and ce­remonies, in which case it has either no effect at all on moral conduct, or a very pernicious one— or men are constrained to profess what they do not believe; by which their hearts are corrupted, and their actions and sentiments are at constant variance. The glory of God is thus promoted by defacing his image on the human soul, and by transforming his reasonable service into childish pageantry and insignificant pomp. Besides, if any set of men assume to themselves the power of pre­scribing to others in religious matters, others may, with as good a title, do the same whenever they obtain the power. True religion may thus be suppressed and destroyed, without its professors having any plea for its defence which is not equal­ly competent to the most absurd superstition. While men thus domineer in religious matters, according as they possess the power, all religious improvement is precluded; the wisest and most pious of men may be obliged to submit, in obse­quious silence, to the most ignorant and impious; and superstition, in all its hideous forms, is put on the same footing, and enjoys the same advantages for its maintenance and propagation, with divine revelation itself. This right of freedom of judg­ment carries along with it that of free communi­cation [Page 98] of sentiment, within the limitations above laid down. As there is in man a strong natural propensity to communicate his feelings and senti­ments to others, so the faculty by which he is chief­ly enabled to communicate them is one of the most powerful bonds of society, and one of the chief in­struments of its improvement. By suppressing this freedom of communication, the natural equality of men is destroyed. Those from whom it is wrested are degraded from the condition of mem­bers of the community, and, being stripped of this privilege, may be prevented from contributing that portion to the public good which it might en­able them to afford. How much the improve­ment and felicity of mankind depend on the free diffusion of knowledge, is too evident to require any proof. Nor is it less certain that ignorance and prejudice, ever delighting in darkness, because their Laponian eyes are too weak to endure the light, are extremely desirous of excluding it from whatever quarter it may shine. They endeavour, therefore, violently to extinguish the lamp of rea­son, and to silence the voice of truth. If they suc­ceed, all the evils of barbarism are perpetuated; if the precious right of free communication of opi­nion is maintained, private as well as public happi­ness is the result.

[Page 99]But, if men embrace and profess opinions with regard to religion, morals, or politics, the most grossly false and erroneous, are such systems to be tolerated, and not rather proscribed as effron­tive to God, and pernicious to men? The first in­quiry must be, whether such opinions tend to over­turn the principles of civil society, and to disturb its order and peace. If any are so foolish, or so wicked, as to entertain sentiments subversive of those fundamental truths on which the mutual obligations of men, and the practice of all vir­tue, and civil society itself, are founded; such may be justly constrained to abstain from the propaga­tion of them, or to remove from the society of which they are members; or, if they obstinately refuse to comply with a requisition which self-preservation dictates, may be justly punished in or­der to deter others from imitating their example. But as such fundamental truths are few, and uni­versally acknowledged, so they ought not to be unnecessarily multiplied in order to suppress the exercise of private judgment, or connected with other points in which diversity of opinion, far from being pernicious, conduces to enlarge the bounds of human knowledge, by pouring in new light from various inquiry and intelligence. Be­sides, as no sincere professor of any system of re­ligion or morals really believes it impious and [Page 100] pernicious, but, on the contrary, entertains the highest opinion of its excellence, such ought ra­ther to be convinced by argument, than destroy­ed by persecution, and, while he abstains from actions injurious to others, it is unjust to treat him with severity and violence. It is undeniable that bigotry, and superstition, and enthusiasm, whether religious or civil, have often produced the most direful calamities in the world. But it is to be observed, that this has entirely proceeded from the principle against which I am now con­tending, namely, the right of any man to dictate to the conscience of another. For if, on the most important of all subjects, men supported their cause by argument and persuasion only, supersti­tion, bigotry, and error, would soon be driven from the field, and true religion and pure morality obtain a decisive victory in every part of the world. But while different sects and parties mutually re­present each other as the enemies of God and man, and connect, with every speculative opinion, the most important consequences to the temporal, as well as the eternal, interests of mankind, ran­cour, and hatred, and malevolence, soon burst into the flames of the most virulent animosity, per­secution appears in her most hideous forms, and the cause of God, and the interests of mankind, are assumed as pretexts for indulging the most [Page 101] serocious passions of the human breast! If, on the one hand, therefore, professions evidently sub­versive of the fundamental principles of society have no claim to toleration; so, on the other, the greatest caution is to be used not to class, un­der this head, opinions which have no connection with the interests of civil society, but regard only theological or philosophical speculation. I mean not that erroneous opinions are always free from blame, because it is an undoubted fact that error is not always the result of weakness of judgment, but more frequently still of pride, of obstinacy, or of negligence. But as no man is master of ano­ther's conscience, so no man can claim to himself the judgment of this point with regard to ano­ther, but in as far as opinion is manifested by acti­on. To his own master he standeth or falleth, who art thou that judgest another?

The right of liberty, which I have illustrated at considerable length, because it is not generally understood, includes, first, personal liberty; se­condly, liberty of action; thirdly, liberty of con­science; fourthly, liberty of communication of sentiment.

To all these modifications of liberty within the limitations above stated, every member of society [Page 102] has an equal right; nor can any discrimination of rank, of fortune, or of abilities, entitle any one to any privilege in these respects, which is not equally due to every human being who is possessed of a sound mind, has reached the years of matu­rity, and has not voluntarily subjected himself to the controul of another.

CHAPTER V. That it is the INTEREST of GOVERNMENTS to preserve INVIOLATE the RIGHT of LIBERTY, as above explained.

IT is a false notion to suppose that governments are most firmly established when the liberty of the subject, or of the citizen, is destroyed. It will, in fact, be found, on mature consideration, that it is as much the interest of governors, as of the governed, that this grand right be religiously ob­served in all its branches. It is true that no go­vernment can subsist in the midst of licentiousness. But, licentiousness and despotism are only different names for the same thing. Licentiousness is a con­tempt of law, and right, and justice—is the do­minion of passion, and caprice, and violence. And, what other definition can be given of despotism? In the midst of that anarchy which licentiousness introduces, those who have acquired the greatest influence over the multitude lead them at their [Page 104] pleasure, and usurp the most despotic power over the rest of the community. This power con­tinues as long as the favour that produced it, and then gives place to another dominion, equally ca­pricious and cruel. Society is thus agitated with unceasing convulsions, till it sink under absolute power, or a happy combination of circumstances establish the equal and impartial government of law, and of authority founded on its basis.

Despotism produces similar effects, though in an inverted course. It levels all to exalt one, or a few; and, acknowledging no title but force, tram­ples under foot every claim of right which is op­posed to its dominion. But, as all power, when separated from justice, must fall before superior power contending with it; and as slaves, whene­ver they have the courage to resist, and the saga­city to combine against, their master, must inevi­tably crush him; so, every despot shares all the terror he inspires, and joins trembling with his commands. Knowing himself the enemy of man­kind, he can place no confidence in their affecti­on▪ and make no appeal to their justice. When his power begins to totter, the [...] that restrains them is removed, and the interest that engaged them in his favour passes over to the quarter where it can be better promoted. While flattery is en­deavouring [Page 105] to lull him to security, treachery is machinating his destruction; and he is often over­whelmed before he has time to prepare either for resistance or for escape ^*.

To this situation, dismal even in its greatest pre-eminence and splendor, all abuses of power insensibly lead. Smaller violations of right are easily borne, because they are not generally or se­verely felt. This success tempts to greater op­pression, while the lust, and the advantages of power, stimulate to extend its limits, and to ensure its duration. Oppression, at last, becomes neces­sary to its own support, and the fear of redress suggests the accumulation of injustice. Abuses grow intolerable; violent resistence appears the only means of relief; and the moment which ad­vances oppression to its completion, becomes the [Page 106] period of its overthrow. For, when the bodies of men are neither effeminated by luxury, nor en­feebled by climate, nor their minds brutified by ignorance, they cannot fail, sooner or later, to shake off the yoke of tyranny, and to break her sceptre in pieces. As in such circumstances, how­ever, their lethargic passiveness is dispelled by ex­traordinary stimulants, and the furious passions of resentment and revenge are violently roused, the most atrocious acts of cruelty are exercised towards their oppressors, or those whom they conceive to have been joined with them in the odi­ous combination against their species; and the vindication of violated right is thus often accom­panied with the most flagrant injustice. In this manner human society, which should be the safe­guard of human happiness, so frequently exhibits alternate scenes of rigorous despotism, and of furious anarchy; of injustice in the maintenance of usurped power, and of violence in the subver­sion of it; of gross abuses in the administration of governments, and of lamentable calamities in the reformation of them. The only stable go­vernment is that which is sounded on equal liber­ty, limited by law, administered with moderation, supported by the combined interests of the whole political body, and displayed in the glorious effects of internal order and external security—of im­proving industry, civilization, and virtue.

CHAPTER VI. Of RIGHTS peculiar to certain STATIONS and ABILITIES.

BESIDES those rights, equally belonging to all, which have been above illustrated, there are others, which, although they are founded on the distinctions of rank and fortune, or on the gene­ral subordination which civil society requires, are nevertheless deducible from that notion of equali­ty established in the first part of this Essay.

I. Those who are placed in the higher stations, and invested with offices of government and com­mand, as they owe the discharge of these impor­tant functions to the public, are entitled, from this very consideration, to the obedience of those who are subjected to their authority. As mem­bers of the social body they are bound to promote its interest by the most effectual means in their power. The peculiar direction of this utility is [Page 108] determined by their offices themselves. This line cannot be pursued without the legal obedi­ence and submission of the rest of the community. Hence that equality of obligation which binds the former to the just and zealous discharge of their functions, binds also the latter to a ready and cheer­ful subjection to their authority.

II. When the necessary balance of the politi­cal body, or that encouragement of merit which tends so powerfully to promote its highest interest, have raised a certain class of men to certain ho­nours and privileges; these are, by that equality itself which subsists among all in their common re­lation to the public good, entitled to the advan­tages and respect which are annexed to their sta­tion, which the public welware requires should be maintained in becoming splendour and dignity.

When, by political constitutions, peculiar marks of distinction are assigned to eminent talents and virtues, those who display them have a just claim on the public to the distinction which is their re­ward, and on every member of the community for the regard which that distinction requires. Views of public interest suggest such distinctions as incen­tives to merit, in order to extract from all the members of the social body the greatest possible [Page 109] sum of exertion, and to diffuse its influence over the whole. It is just, therefore, that those who contribute in the most distinguished degree to the common welfare should enjoy a proportionable share of honour and advantage, adapted to the peculiar manner in which their utility has been displayed. To deprive them of this would be to destroy their relation to the community, and that equality which consists in the common obligation of all to contribute to its benefit, and to receive a proportionate return.

III. When riches, acquired by honest industry, or enjoyed in virtue of those laws which perpetu­ate property, whatever be its value and extent, enable their possessors to relieve want, to sooth affliction, to diffuse around them a spirit of improve­ment, to encourage industry, and to make their superfluity circulate through the general mass of the community, they confer on the opulent a just title to consideration and influence, in proportion to the superior benefits they bestow on all who are placed within the sphere of their action. It would be as unjust to deny them this considerati­on, as it would be to with-hold from a day-la­borer his hire, or from a good man the esteem which is his due.

[Page 110]IV. The same considerations give to the inferi­or ranks of society, and to the community in gene­ral, an equal right to demand that all delegated power and authority, as all civil power undoubt­edly is, be employed solely for the ends for which it was conferred, and that all honorary distinctions be neither bestowed on the undeserving, nor per­verted to the purposes of pride, of insolence, and of oppression. The community at large has a right to demand that the legislative power be constantly directed by views of general utility, and not by partial systems which injure and distress the whole by throwing all advantages on one side of the political body; that the executive power never exceed its legal bounds, and, by an impar­tial administration of justice, maintain all in the equal enjoyment of their rights; that rank be supported with dignity, and tempered with the affability and condescension becoming every citi­zen; that wealth be not abused to introduce and foment profligacy of manners, or to abet injustice; and that talents be not perverted to disseminate opinions and principles subversive of virtue, and pernicious to society.

V. All men have an equal, though imperfect, right to those offices of humanity which, while they cost the performers of them little trouble, [Page 111] are the sweeteners of social intercourse; and to the compassion and relief, of others, proportion­ed to their condition and circumstances, when they are overpowered by distress and calamity. This right, it is true, cannot be so defined as to admit of any individual's claiming a determined portion of the good offices of any of his fellow men; nay, the fulfilment of its obligations must from its very nature, be left to every one's judg­ment and feelings. But, as men associate for their mutual benefit and comfort, as humanity is interwoven with the human constitution, and as compassion with distress is one of the strongest feelings of our nature, it is undoubted that, to every situation which is calculated to call these feelings into action, a certain right is annexed to expect and require them, and a general obligati­on lies on all to advance the happiness of their fellow men by every mean in their power. As the ordinary offices of civility must vary according to the different conditions and ranks of men; so the compassion which is due to their distress, and the relief which it prompts to afford, must be greatly affected by the same considerations. For, as a loss which would ruin a man in narrow cir­cumstances, would not at all affect a person of affluent fortune; so, on the other hand, there are situations which would appear to one in ob­scure [Page 112] station highly eligible, which would over­whelm those of a more elevated condition with in­expressible dejection and anguish. What would seem to one person a singular benefit, would, to another in different circumstances, either be no benefit at all, or interpreted into a cruel affront. All then have an equal right to offices of humani­ty and kindness; but the degree and manner of these offices must be determined by the circumstan­ces and rank of the persons towards whom they are exercised. This proportion is required by equality itself.

CHAPTER VII. GENERAL INFERENCES from the WHOLE of this BOOK.

I HAVE now endeavored to enumerate, and establish, as concisely as possible, the different rights that flow from the natural equality of men, considered in its proper light. Some of these are so essentially necessary to human happiness, that they cannot be violated without overturning the first principles of society. They are the funda­mental articles of the social compact, for the main­tenance of which mankind, if not explicitly, yet tacitly, and by the institution of civil society itself, have stipulated to relinquish some portion of their natural liberty, and to commit, to a certain num­ber of its members, the concentrated power of the community for the benefit of all. Civil society annihilates not the natural rights of men, but fen­ces, secures, and improves them. By circumscrib­ing them by the limits which the political union [Page 114] requires, it condenses, as it were, their essence, and gives it greater strength and solidity.

Others of these rights flow, indeed, from the same principles; but, as they cannot be so pre­cisely ascertained as to establish an exact and defi­nite claim in every particular case, they may ad­mit of a less rigorous observance, without wound­ing the vitals of human association. If those of the former class constitute the foundations of the social fabric, those of the latter indicate the means of its consolidation and highest improvement. When all these rights are maintained, according to their respective importance, as far as the hu­man condition will admit, society is flourishing and happy, under whatever form of political ad­ministration it may be placed. There are, it is true, certain forms of government, which, as their constitution itself threatens even the most impor­tant of them with destruction, are, therefore, es­sentially bad. But, there are others which, main­taining the grand prerogatives of human nature, have a direct tendency to advance social happiness, though in different degrees. Under such govern­ments mankind may always consider it as a fortu­nate circumstance to be placed. That govern­ment [Page 115] is the best in which all the inherent rights of human nature are inviolably secured, legal autho­rity is maintained, and restricted to its objects, the power of the state is employed to promote the general happiness; and inequality itself tends to preserve equality of law, and parity of obligation, among all the members of the community.

CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

THE division of my subject, on which I now enter, opens a field comprehending every social and civil duty, because every duty of this class sup­poses reciprocal obligations founded on the terms of equality, on which men associate. Nay, as in order to discharge the duties we owe to our fellow men, and fellow citizens, it is necessary to restrain our selfish passions within just bounds; and, as the Divine authority sanctions every human obligati­on, and religion is the firmest bond of society, the [Page 120] duties of piety, as well as those of self-command and moderation, might be inculcated on the same principles. Hence, a complete treatise of practical morality might be produced. But, as this Essay has already swelled beyond the bounds which I at first proposed to it, I shall confine myself to the consideration of these duties which directly flow from the principles of equality already established, and from the rights which they confirm. The duties now to be illustrated will, therefore, cor­respond to the two grand divisions of rights ex­plained in the preceding Book ^*.

CHAPTER II. All MEN, equally bound to RESPECT the PRIMITIVE RIGHTS of HUMAN NATURE.

AS the inherent rights of human nature are the fundamental articles of the social compact, for the maintenance and preservation of which civil so­ciety is constituted, every violation of these is not only an atrocious injury to the individual who suffers it, but is a direct attack on society it­self. No pre-eminence or prerogative whatever can give a title to deprive an innocent member of the community of those rights, without which his existence is either precarious or miserable; and every attempt to infringe them is, on the part of the aggressor, a renunciation of his social advan­tages, because these advantages are inseparably connected with the observance of the rights now under consideration. It is to substitute force in the place of right, and, of consequence, to acknowledge that superior power is entitled to [Page 122] make him submit in his turn. This principle, carried in every instance as far as it will go, tears asunder every social and civil tie, tramples under foot every dictate of justice, and introduces a state of unceasing hostility and violence.

Indeed, so essential are some of those rights to the very existence of society, that they are fenc­ed and secured by the strongest civil sanctions. Life and property cannot be directly attacked without exposing the aggressor to the severest pe­nalties. But in what a variety of indirect ways may injuries of this nature be offered, without any risk of human punishment? Life is destroyed not only by the dagger, or by the bowl, but by with-holding the means of its support. Life is not so desirable on its own account, as on account of the enjoyments which it furnishes. Property is withdrawn from its lawful possessor, not only by robbery, or by theft, but also by every species of unfair commerce. Every deceitful practice, there­fore, whereby advantage is taken, under what­ever colour, of the ignorance or of the necessity of men, to deprive them of their property with­out an equivalent, is a violation of the right of property, and every oppressive act which cuts off or diminishes the means of a comfortable subsist­ence, is an attack upon life itself. To reduce men [Page 123] to the dismal necessity of dragging out existence in misery and contempt, to make them curse the day of their birth, and sigh for that of their dis­solution, to render the tenderest of nature's ties an aggravation of distress; what is this but to spare life in order to perpetuate torment? And to this dismal condition how great a portion of the human race is reduced—a condition more ab­ject than that of the brute creation, which nature has provided with the necessary supply of their wants, and given them desires for nothing more! Shall any rights whatever, derived wholly from political institutions, founded, for the most part, in barbarous ignorance and tyrannic oppression, be opposed to those clear and permanent rights which the Creator has conferred on all men equally, by the gift of life itself, and by the na­tural faculties of providing for its supply! Shall he who cultivates the soil be deprived of an ade­quate share of the fruits which his industry pro­duces, and pine in want, while the labour of his hands feeds luxurious idleness? Shall the right of property be established only for those who contri­bute nothing to the general stock, but consume and waste what the industry of others has provid­ed, and shall that property which nature has be­stowed on her children, in the faculties of their [Page 124] minds and of their bodies, be considered as a mark of degradation, and a badge of slavery?

How contrary are such sentiments, and the conduct they produce, to that just notion of equa­lity above established, which represents every hu­man being as a constituent member of the social body, and in his peculiar station, equally necessa­ry, with every other, to the common welfare; which exhibits man to man as children of one com­mon parent, as brethren connected no less by one common interest, than by one common origin, and discriminated, by different distinctions of occupa­tion and place, merely that the general good may be more effectually advanced. For, although such views of society may, by some whose policy is but half wisdom, be classed among the theories of moralists, or the visions of divines, they are the only representations that can stand the test of rea­son, or bear the eye of inquiry.

Equally incumbent, on all men, is the duty to respect the right which every innocent individual has to character and liberty. But, how little is this duty regarded? Civil laws cannot do so much for the security of the rights, to which it relates, as for those of life and property; because it is not so easy to define, in every case, their exact extent, [Page 125] and much more is, on that account, left to the dis­cretion and virtue of individuals. That degree of character which is assaulted by open and direct calumny, may, indeed, be always exactly ascer­tained, and every infraction of it become the subject of legal animadversion. This is also the case with regard to personal liberty. But, in how many instances may a character be ruined, with­out its being in the power of the injured person to find any legal redress; and how much may one's just liberty be circumscribed and infringed without any ground of legal complaint? The daily con­duct of mankind towards one another, in these respects, is the strongest evidence both of the ne­cessity of a civil government, and of its insuffici­ency for the security of human happiness. It manifests the malevolent propensities by which mankind are often actuated, and, of consequence, the necessity of coercive power; and, since these evil propensities burst out on so many quarters, notwithstanding the authority of laws, this evin­ces the great utility of philosophical and religious instruction, which applies to the understanding and the heart, and, by purifying the source of action, renders conduct more conformable to hu­man nature, and more conducive to human feli­city.

[Page 126] Do unto others as you wish them to do unto you, is a maxim that answers every case in which we can have any intercourse with our fellow men. It is founded on the equality of human nature, amidst all the diversities of condition and circumstances. It takes, as the rule of conduct, the feelings of every individual, supposing his condition were exchanged with that of the person towards whom he acts. It could never, therefore, be a just standard, if the same duties were not equally in­cumbent on all in the same circumstances. Now, with respect to reputation and liberty, which eve­ry human being so warmly cherishes, and so ea­gerly pursues, this rule ought to have peculiar efficacy. Yet, in these respects, it is most shame­fully and frequently violated. It is astonishing to observe the general aversion to reproach and cen­sure, and the general propensity to reproach and censure others; the high opinion which most peo­ple entertain of themselves, and wish the world to entertain of them, and their inclination to think ill of others, and to undervalue and dimi­nish their good qualities. It is natural to suppose, that, as the experience of distress renders men prone to compassion ^*, so the love of character, and aversion from disgrace, which operate so [Page 127] powerfully in every human breast, would render men delicate in inflicting, on others, those pains which are so grievous to themselves, and in depri­ving them of those satisfactions which they ac­count so delicious. But these sensations act, un­der the impulse of selfishness in a contrary man­ner. Men think that the reputation of others stands in the way of their own, and that their ex­cellence cannot be exhibited unless those inter­posing eminences be thrown down, and the pub­lic eye wholly fixed on themselves▪ While [...] are thus employed in levelling each other, no real pre-eminence remains to any, and nothing is displayed, to every judicious eye, but one wide extent of malignity and corruption. Every one wishes his opinion of his neighbour to be believed; and his wish is granted. But the fulfilment of this wish equally wounds the characters of all. The blemishes he discovers in another, or imputes to him, are acknowledged; those which another lays to his charge meet with the same credit. Thus every one by endeavoring to exalt himself at another's expence, only points out the means of his own depression, and, by setting the exam­ple, provokes the rest of mankind to use them. Such however, is the fascination of self-love, that the generality of men suppose themselves ve­ry little obnoxious to censure; and, while they [Page 128] are indulging the most vicious passions of the hu­man heart, envy or revenge, they flatter them­selves with the vain notion that their turpitude is unobserved. As often as I reflect on the preva­lence of detraction, of obloquy, and of slander, I find it difficult to determine whether it proceeds more from weakness or from malignity; whether it is more an object of contempt or of detestation. What can be more malignant than to delight in the destruction of one of the dearest of human enjoyments? What more foolish and ridiculous than for a person to assault others, and to suppose that the attack will not be returned?

The same absurdity and injustice is conspicuous in the mutual conduct of men with regard to liber­ty. How few are ready on every occasion to grant to others the same freedom which they take to themselves! Such is the spirit of domination universally diffused, that what Pope limits only to one sex, is equally applicable to both— the love of pleasure, and the love of power. Indeed, the one necessarily draws after it the other. The love of pleasure produces the desire of the means of ob­taining it, and of extending influence and power as far as possible. For why are men tyrants, but because they wish freely to indulge their inclina­tions, unrestrained by justice, unlimited by mode­ration? [Page 129] While self-love, therefore, is the pre­dominant principle of the human heart, tyranny will not be confined to thrones and dominions, to principalities and powers, but spread through e­very sphere and condition of life. It is not so much the inclination as the power that is want­ing; and the temper, which is overbearing and unjust in private life, would be a Nero if seated on a throne. Let us only consider the fond at­tachment which most men have to their own opi­nions and mode of life, their eager desire to im­pose them on others, their impatience of contra­diction, their propensity to square the actions of other men by their own rule, their lust of homage and precedence, their eagerness to rise above others, and to indulge their ambition in every lit­tle manner which their sphere presents to them, their resentment of affronts and injuries, appa­rent as well as real, their self-conceit and aversi­on from amendment—we behold the seeds of ty­ranny lurking in almost every human breast; and shall cease to wonder that, when great power is possessed, it should be so frequently abused. How seldom is the freedom of speech and action enjoy­ed even in the freest states of civil society! Let any one recollect what passes before his eyes every day; let him consider how often he is obliged to regulate his words, not so much by the internal [Page 130] sentiments of his own heart, as by the opinions and prejudices of those with whom he associates, and his actions, not so much by the immutable rules of duty, as by the fictitious standards of the world, and he will confess that none can enjoy the true freedom of a man, but he who has the fortitude to sacrifice to this exalted privilege, his most valuable temporal interests, and his chief social pleasures. Prejudices born of ignorance, or of pride, are nourished by education, strength­ened by interest, or supported by that self-love which is humbled by the exposition of them. Custom and fashion have established arbitrary rules and forms, which, however contrary to rea­son, it is considered as unlawful, at least, as high­ly ridiculous, to infringe. The man who pre­sumes to think, to speak, or to act, differently from the generality, even in matters of singular importance to the common good, is looked upon as an unsocial savage being, who, separating him­self from his species, is entitled to no share of their regard and affection. It is well, if he is not ex­posed to the severest effects of resentment and hatred.

Wealth and external dignity, although they can­not of themselves introduce one ray of light into the understanding, or implant one virtue in the [Page 131] heart, assume the privilege of dictating in mat­ters of taste, of politics, of science, of morality, and of religion, and of bearing down all who sub­scribe not to their arbitrary decrees. The res­pect due to rank, and the influence which for­tune justly claims, every man of sense and of in­tegrity will readily acknowledge and bestow. But that a man's judgment should be measured by his title, or his merit, weighed by his gold; that fortune and rank should not only possess their rightful precedence, but also usurp the honour which is equally due to genius and learning, to wisdom and virtue; that a sensible and honest man should not dare to express his sentiments, be­cause they are repugnant to those of another de­corated with the badges of distinction, or possess­ed of a large estate; is such a perversion of na­ture, such an infraction of liberty, as mankind could never be brought to endure but by those habits of servility which luxurious effeminacy has introduced. It will be answered, that this free­dom, every man who chooses to use it, may en­joy. But at what expence? at the expence of in­curring the keenest displeasure of the exalted person whom he disobliges, and of feeling his power employed to ruin him and his nearest con­nections.

[Page 132]But, why complain of the exorbitant and ty­rannical pretensions of rank and fortune, when genius, which has already secured fame, frequent­ly exhibits the same dogmatical and oppressive spi­rit? How often have those, whose literary cha­racter has already attracted the greatest conside­ration and respect, usurped a dictatorial power both in conversation and writing, contradicted without argument, keenly resented the smallest difference of opinion, even when their sentiments were manifestly absurd, shared out their appro­bation by the measure of flattery they received, and inflicted censure, not according to personal or literary merit, but according to the prejudice or disgust by which they were influenced. In reading the lives of some distinguished geniuses, I have found my indignation as much fired by their pride and insolence, and by the tame sub­mission with which they were borne, as by the op­pression of civil despots, and the servility of the rest of mankind. In fact, genius and reputati­on give as little title to domineer as fortune and rank. For, whatever mental superiority a man may display, he is inferior to others in many qua­lities, equally necessary to the common good as the talents he possesses. Brilliant powers are fre­quently counter-balanced by contemptible weak­nesses, and great virtues by shameful vices. In [Page 133] proof of this assertion, I might instance the lives of some of the greatest literary characters.

As individuals are actuated by a tyrannical spi­rit, so nations claim to themselves the preroga­tive of reducing to slavery others inhabiting a different climate, or distinguished by a different colour of countenance. Aristotle, in that very book where he establishes the grand principles of a free government ^*, is not ashamed to assert, that the Greeks were destined, by nature, to rule the other nations of the earth; and founds this right on their superior genius and civilization. Had that philosopher foreseen the present state of his own country, and that of those nations whom he considered as appointed to continue bar­barians to the end of time, he would have ac­knowledged the futility of his argument. But the nations of Europe, who have exchanged bar­barism for refinement, have adopted the same principle, and suppose that superiority of art and policy carries along with it the right of oppress­ing those whose state is still rude and uncultiva­ted. The principles established in this Essay suffi­ciently evince that no pre-eminence of sagacity, wisdom, ingenuity, or strength can entitle any human being, or any society of men, to deprive [Page 134] others of the inherent and unalienable rights of human nature.

But, since principles directly contrary to these influence the generality of mankind, the present state of society is perfectly conformable. As few men have the courage to sacrifice their interest, their pleasure, or their fame, to their regard for truth and justice, the great concern is, to speak and act, not as reason and virtue dictate, but as interested views, in conforming to the opinions, humours, and manners of others, may require. For, how is the favour of the greater part of men to be caught, but by adulation and servile res­pect? and what so efficacious for incurring their displeasure, as that manly and generous conduct and conversation, which indicate less solicitude to secure favour than to enjoy self-esteem, a great­er love of mankind than respect for individuals? Hence, most men have an opinion for every com­pany they frequent, and change their sentiments oftener than their dress. The art of pleasing, reduced into system, and practised by every one who assumes the character of politeness, has given the same shape and coloring to the manners of all; and those prominent features, which characterise and distinguish, are rubbed off by the file of civi­lity and fashion. Politeness is making constant [Page 135] demands—propriety imposing new laws—men are always the slaves of custom, and seldom fol­low the bent of their own genius and temper. Society is a species of stage, on which the actors appear in their turns, and play their parts. The real character remains behind the scenes. The great contest is, who shall act with the most pow­erful effect on the spectators, and produce the completest illusion. He is, therefore, most ap­plauded, and bears the highest price, who appears least himself, and personates most successfully the assumed character. Should an uncivilized son of nature be introduced into our European circles, he would, at first, conclude that humanity and benevolence had there fixed their abode. But, as soon as he was informed that all this was but scenery and stage effect, he would be uncertain whether most to admire the skill with which the representation was conducted, or to detest the duplicity which could so completely assume the appearance of qualities, of which the reality was wanting ^*.

By these different infractions of the original rights of man above mentioned, society is reduced to its present unhappy condition, in which the Hobbesian state of nature appears in the midst of [Page 136] civilisation and refinement. The interests, the pursuits, and the passions of men constantly acting in opposition, inspire, in the midst of unceasing competition, unremitting caution and solicitous jealousy. The specious mask of civility and com­plaisance is often assumed to conceal the most hostile designs. The language of nature is un­known, and the warm expressions of affection ei­ther fall to the ground destitute of all meaning, or are perverted to convey an ironical conception of contempt and dislike ^*.

How different would be the face of society, if the just equality of mankind were duly considered, and the inherent rights of human nature respect­ed as they ought! But this consummation, de­voutly to be wished, will only take place, when men shall believe and practise Christianity, and do the will of their heavenly Father on earth, as it is done in Heaven.

CHAPTER III. The DUTIES of those who are placed in the INFERIOR STATIONS of LIFE, or endowed with INFERIOR CAPACITIES and POWERS.

IF the distribution of abilities illustrated in the first Book ^*, and a diversity of ranks in society, be best calculated to promote the happiness, not only of the social body in general, but of every indi­vidual that composes it, how iniquitous and unrea­sonable is it to oppose this plan, and to complain of its arrangement, because it coincides not with the suggestions of ambition and caprice? When men despise those talents and that rank in life which divine providence has allotted them, and aspire at others for which they were never design­ed by nature, they aim at subverting that equali­ty of obligation which assigns particular duties to particular abilities and situations, and requires them to be answered by others of a different or­der. For, if every man is at liberty to desert [Page 138] the post assigned him, and to invade another's pro­vince, how shall the inferior stations be filled, which are not less necessary to the general welfare than the more eminent? If, in the circumstances in which any given number of men can be placed, there be unavoidable hardships and inconveniences, why should these rather be supported by such as have never been accustomed to them, and are therefore totally unqualified for their duties, than by those whom education, and habit, have best adapted to such situations? Yet, unless these inconveniences be endured, these difficulties en­countered by some, the stations in question must be deserted, and a void left in the order of socie­ty equally pernicious to public and to private in­terest.

Still, men complain of their situation, and ea­gerly aspire to others more exalted! But, is there any real foundation for this discontent, for this restless desire of change? Is it, as people pretend, that their present condition is more painful, more adverse to virtue, more inauspicious to the devel­opment and exercise of their powers, than those which they so fondly desire? Or is it that men are better acquainted with the difficulties and temptations of their present situation, than with those of any other, have fondly magnified their [Page 139] own abilities, and ignorantly placed all excellence in the discharge of the duties of superior stations? If we examine the case with impartial attention, we shall find no reason to hesitate in determining the question.

Men readily grant the complaints of those who are placed above them to be ill founded, and ascribe their dissatisfaction to their folly. They hastily presume that, if they were fixed in their situation, they would easily surmount its difficul­ties, resist its temptations, and fully discharge its duties. Their inferiors pronounce the same judg­ment with regard to them and their circumstances, and, if they envy, they are envied in their turn. A convincing proof this, that, in every conditi­on, there are advantages as well as difficulties; that, though none is exempted from inconvenience, none is absolutely insupportable; and that discon­tent with a present station, and impatient desire of a higher, proceed from mistaken notions of both.

I beg that it may be considered that I am, at present, speaking only of the different ranks and situations of human society, as they are diversified for the common happiness of mankind; and not of those singular conditions of distress and misery, [Page 140] which fall to the lot of individuals. In these, pa­tience and fortitude may be recommended as du­ties and as consolations; but contentment can hard­ly be required.

But, in surveying the different stations of life, although men grant that there are difficulties and hardships in all of them, they still believe that these diminish in proportion to the degree of ele­vation; and fall, with the greatest weight, on those who occupy the lowest places. They fond­ly imagine, that, if they could ascend to a consi­derable height, they should there find some agree­able spot, where, unmolested and composed, they might survey the steep which they had climbed, and enjoy the delightful prospect opened around them. But, they reflect not on the difficulty of the ascent, on the giddiness of the situation, or, if they should chance to slip, on the severity of the fall. The pressure of corporeal wants, the burden of daily labour, and the humiliation of contempt, constitute the primary pains of a poor and ignoble condition. It is further deprived of the enjoyments which result from the cultivation of reason, and of the other nobler faculties of the soul, and is constrained to toil amidst the darkness of ignorance. If those, to whose share it falls, feel for the miseries of others, they are destitute [Page 141] of the means of relieving them, and must suffer the pangs of compassion, without the divine satis­faction of beneficence. Pressed with their own distresses, feeling for those in similar, or in still more afflicting circumstances, and observing the su­perfluity of the sons of fortune, they are apt to envy their prosperity, to murmur at the Divine dispensations, and to practice violence or fraud, in order to obtain what their situation has denied them.

They consider not, however, that the pleasures of life depend not so much on the externals of condition as on the dispositions of the possessor; that what seems calculated to satisfy, and to limit, desire, serves often to inflame and extend it; that the enjoyments which are in men's power are not those which they really taste; and that to wish and to pursue is the unceasing employment of man upon [...]arth. He who ascends a mountain, and beholds the view unfolding around him, is fired with greater curiosity to reach the summit, whence the utmost bounds of the prospect can be descried. In like manner, no moderare exaltati­on in the scale of society can satisfy men, whose ambition is kindled, and whose activity engaged. Every step becomes only a help to rise higher; and desire continues importunate even after its [Page 142] objects are all exhausted. Alexander is the true emblem of ambition, which is restless while any thing remains above it; and, when it has reached the summit of its desires, weeps that the progress is finished!

Ye who envy fortune and rank, not so much for the sensual pleasures, or the indulgences of vanity and pride which they afford, as for the sublime and elegant enjoyments which they seem to offer, in the improvement of knowledge, the cultivation of genius, and the exercise of the no­blest virtues of human nature—say if the engage­ments of public business, the contentions of am­bition, the interruptions of company, the endless exactions of ceremony, the allurements of plea­sure, can afford much leisure for the improvement of the mind, and the cultivation of elegant stu­dies; or that, when the reputation of wisdom, of learning, or of wit, is acquired without judgment, application, or parts, and flattery amply supplies every deficiency, there is any incitement to such noble and pleasing pursuits? In a low and indigent station, are there greater temptations to discon­tent and envy, than when success inflames ambi­tion, and ambition spurns every inferior degree? Are the motives stronger to cultivate honesty, and to observe the dictates of justice, when the [Page 143] severity of punishment hangs over the head of the offender, than when concealment is promised by interest, inquiry removed by intrigue, or impuni­ty secured by power? Is there less sympathy with the distress, or less sincere joy on the prosperity of others, when men are reminded of their suf­ferings by the experience of their own, and de­pend for subsistence on their bounty and good opi­nion—than when luxury removes even the aspect of want, and opulence secures independence? Is there less piety and devotion, less reverence for God, when men literally implore him for daily bread, and depend for its supply on the continu­ance of health, and on the fertility of the sea­sons, than when, having much goods laid up for many years, they eat, drink, and are merry ^*, and the immoderate draughts of plenty render them forgetful of the bountiful hand that bestows it?

Supposing, after all, that the advantages of cul­tivation and virtue are fully improved by those in the higher stations, in what do these exceed the same advantages of the inferior, so as to render them objects of envy, or causes of discontent?— Has not every member of Christian society suffici­ent opportunity of acquiring the sublimest and most [Page 144] useful branches of human knowledge—the origin, the duties, and the destination of man—the rela­tion in which he stands to his Creator and to his fellow men—the divine nature and perfections— the gracious plan of salvation the Deity has pub­lished to guilty mortals, by the mouth of his own Son, and by his inspired Apostles—the glorious prospects opened to his penitent and amended children beyond the grave, and the gracious means he hath instituted for their perfection and felicity? Do not the heavens, the ocean and the earth, unfold their magnificent and numberless beauties to the eye of the peasant, as well as to that of the monarch; nay, do they not disclose to the former many ravishing scenes, which the lat­ter can seldom behold? Are not many even of the most striking and admirable displays of art, which riches have produced, and continue to support, equally enjoyed by the meanest passenger, as by the proprietor himself? It is a gross mistake to suppose, that to provide for one's family by assidu­ous and honest labour, is less meritorious than to supply the poor out of an opulent fortune; that patience is less commendable than generosity, re­signation than munificence, meekness, than mode­ration, contentment than condescension; that so­ciety is less benefited by being furnished with the necessaries of life, than by being adorned with the [Page 145] refinements of art, and by the productions of ge­nius; that the public welfare is less promoted by dutiful submission to lawful authority, by an in of­fensive, regular, and serviceable conduct, than by the enaction of salutary laws, by the judgment and punishment of offenders, and by a zealous and disinterested discharge of public trust. God ac­cepts no less the artless devotion of the grateful, though uninstructed, heart, than the copious and swelling praises of the enlightened understanding. The coarser and brawny muscles are as necessary to the perfection of the body, as the organs of the most delicate texture.

It is thus evident, that real happiness and virtue are not limited to any station, but are equally open to all. If there is any exception to this conclu­sion, it must be in favor of the middling spheres of life—in which neither power and opulence tempt to oppression and dissoluteness of manners, nor poverty and ignorance lead to fraud and violence; in which neither pride hardens the soul, nor servi­lity debases it; in which the best enjoyments of life are offered, and its greatest enticements to cor­ruption excluded.

From all that has been said on this subject, it clearly appears, that as it is the duty, it is equally [Page 146] the interest of all who are placed in the inferior ranks of life, to discharge, with diligence and as­siduity the humble offices of their station, to cul­tivate contentment with their lot, and to suppress the emotions of envy towards those who are more exalted.

It may indeed be objected, that the desire of rising is one of the most powerful motives to the honest and active discharge of every social duty, that one great point of equality among men consists in the opportunity which all ought to enjoy of ex­ercising their useful or elegant abilities, and that, if every one is to rest satisfied with the condition in which his birth or his circumstances have plac­ed him, exertion must be discouraged, and the general welfare be deprived of the benefit which results from honest and generous ambition. We have, moreover, shown above, that frequent ex­change of ranks and conditions seems to compose a part of the divine administration of human af­fairs. If those, therefore, whose situation is at present ignoble and depressed, are to consider it as a duty never to aspire higher, one of the strong­est checks is removed from pride, namely, the un­certainty of its elevation, while dejection and po­verty are deprived of one of their most powerful consolations—the expectation of more prosperous days.

[Page 147]It ought, however, to be considered, that the doctrine above inculcated tends not to preclude laudable ambition and industry, but only to sup­press, on the one hand, discontent, avarice, and envy, and to remove every pretext for indulging these passions under the specious colorings of more elevated and generous motives; and, on the other, to comfort and strengthen those who are apt to view their inferior stations with an undis­cerning eye, which beholds affliction where hap­piness may be found, and degradation where true dignity may reside. Nay, if our limits admitted of it, it might easily be shown, that the faithful discharge of the duties of an inferior station, and that contented and cheerful mind which partakes of its greatest enjoyments, are the surest and safest means of advancement. I shall satisfy myself, how­ever, with pointing out, in the following Chapter, some important cautions with respect to the im­provement of our condition.

CHAPTER IV. CAUTIONS to be observed in the PURSUIT of a HIGHER and more FLOURISHING CONDITION.

I. THE desire of improving one's circum­stances ought never to lead to encroachment on the rights of others, whether natural or acquired. By the violation of the former, the fundamental principles of society are subverted; and, by that of the latter, the order necessary to its existence, is destroyed. Whoever, therefore, pretends to maintain any of the natural rights of man, by overturning that subordination and just order, which is the soul and the life of society, defeats the very purpose which he has in view, and exhibits either egregious folly or egregious wickedness. In either case, he becomes a dangerous enemy to the public interest, who is to be restrained and punished, to prevent him both from injuring others by his practice, and corrupting them by his exam­ple. Such, however, is the intemperance of hu­man [Page 149] passions, even those of the most generous kind, when they are strongly excited, that the ardor of liberty, and indignation at oppression, often hurry men to pursue a conduct directly re­pugnant to the principles of equity and beneficence which they profess—to oppress others when they are contending for freedom; to be most iniquit­ous in defence of justice; and, with a view to pro­mote the welfare of society, to overturn its foun­dations. Let the times in which we live, declare, in many instances, the truth of this assertion.

II. The duties of the station, which people al­ready occupy, ought to limit their endeavors af­ter advancement. The co-operation of every in­dividual for the public good, must first display its energy in the sphere in which he moves, and be thence transmitted to the other parts of the soci­al body. By neglecting the duties of his present station, a person with-holds the portion he is ap­pointed to contribute to the general welfare, and, by encroaching on the province of others, may clog their exertion and frustrate their utility. To arrive at a more agreeable or more honorable sta­tion, the faithful discharge of the duties of a pre­sent one ought always to be the first means em­ployed. When these are fulfilled, every fair and honest exertion is not only lawful, but even high­ly [Page 150] laudable, as the greatest activity of the parts then advances more effectually the prosperity of the whole. By embracing the opportunities which occur, and by exercising the talents with which men are endowed, they manifest their gra­titude to Providence, and they improve its gift to the greatest advantage.

III. The duties of any station to which men aspire, and their own ability to discharge them, ought to be considered before they attempt to ob­tain it. For, to occupy a station for which one has no capacity, or with the duties of which he is totally unacquainted, is both to expose his own folly, and to injure society, by betraying a trust which is committed to him. Hence, it is of the utmost consequence to acquire a complete know­ledge of our own talents and qualities, which the generality of mankind are so apt to magnify, both to their own disgrace, and to the detriment of others. Inability to discharge the duties of any station, resulting whether from narrowness of understanding, from unhappiness of temper, or from infirmity of body, should be deemed an ex­press declaration of the Divine will against the acquirement of it, and, of consequence, a boundary not to be passed.

[Page 151]IV. Men's exertions to improve their conditi­on should be influenced by the consideration of the enlargement, or the contraction, of their utility. From the light in which every man appears as a member of human society, to whose benefit he is bound to contribute in the most ample manner possible, it is plain that it can never be lawful for any one to change his present situation for ano­ther, in which his utility must be impaired. This is to prefer private to public interest, to pervert the quality of member, to demand more than is compensated, and to lose all that dignity and real enjoyment which result from the most extensive beneficence.

If, in the station desired, men may be equally useful, as in that which they occupy, private in­terest may be allowed its full force. If, together with advancement, opportunities of utility increase, every private and public consideration happily unites in stimulating to the pursuit of it, and every generous heart will wish and applaud the success.

Thus, the rights of others, the duties of a pre­sent station, the talents requisite for a higher, and the more extensive utility, are the limits within which men ought to confine their exertions for the improvement of their circumstances. Thus, [Page 152] justice, diligence, ability, and public spirit, should be the constant attendants in the path of advance­ment, and the chief forwarders of the progress.

But, how little are these considerations regard­ed! When interest or pleasure are constituted the sole springs of action, every duty that has no ten­dency to advance their ends is neglected, and of­fices, instituted for the benefit of mankind, are shamefully perverted to their prejudice. When the project is formed of rising to preferment without regard to merit, birth, interest, or party-attachments, are the only valid grounds of pre­tension. To the most selfish considerations the most important interests of society are sacrificed. Be­fore children can discover either inclination or ca­pacity, offices are designed for them, and kept constantly in view; nor were this to be censured, if proper care were taken to give them a suitable education, and their destination changed, when their temper and talents were perceived to be in­compatible with it. But these things are seldom much considered. Whatever be the genius or im­provements of the person in question, he must move in the particular sphere which has been cho­sen for him. The public welfare is treated as a chimera, which it is the business of a man well skil­led in the ways of the world to use as a color to [Page 153] varnish the most interested designs, but which none, but an enthusiastic or vulgar mind, can think of adopting as a real object of pursuit. When the public welfare, however, is obstructed, private happiness cannot long be enjoyed. For, as one chief cause of the disorder and corruption, which so often lay waste civil society, is the little atten­tion which is shown to adapt men's condition to their abilities and tempers; so the misery of in­dividuals frequently springs from the same source. Men moving in a sphere for which they were ne­ver designed by nature, soon grow disgusted with their lot, and, finding the duties of their station irksome and oppressive, either neglect them alto­gether, to their own irretrievable disgrace, or continue to discharge them, in such a manner as is equally painful to themselves, and detrimental to others. Thus, Divine Providence takes ven­geance on mankind for infringing its appointments, by allowing them to be bewildered in their errors, and the victims of their own infatuation.

CHAPTER V. The DUTIES of those placed in the HIGHER RANKS of LIFE, and endowed with DISTINGUISHED ABILITIES.

IT is certainly no easy matter for a person not to consider himself as greatly superior to the rest of his species, when every one of those who sur­round him pretends that his honor and dignity, his pleasure and service, are the only objects which occupy himself, and ought to occupy every other; when every one applauds, with servile adulation, his most insignificant sayings, and most ridiculous actions, and adores him as the source of wisdom, and the centre of power. When a person has so many occasions of beholding his fellow men in a contemptible light, it must require angelic mode­ration to abstain from treating them accordingly; to neglect those advantages which his circumstan­ces and their servility put into his hands for gra­tifying his own passions and caprice, at the ex­pence of their most valuable interests.

[Page 155]When, therefore, I consider this state of things, far from being surprised at the pride, and impa­tience of contradiction, which often characterise the higher ranks of life, or any species of distinc­tion and eminence, I am more disposed to admire the condescension and humanity which they so frequently exhibit. For, these vices, though more observable in the higher spheres, because they are displayed in a more conspicuous point of view, are by no means confined to these, but pervade every rank, every situation and profession of life. Hardly any attainments so low, any circumstances so cir­cumscribed, as not to afford scope for self-sufficiency and ostentation. Who will not seem great, if he is as highly exalted as his ideas of greatness reach, and compares himself only with his inferiors: if he estimates his own knowledge by another's igno­rance, his own wisdom by another's folly, his own power by another's impotence, his own wealth by another's poverty, his own virtue by another's depravity? On what other foundation, than on this partial mode of comparison, are built the pride and arrogance of even the most exalted of mankind? But, if we abandon this magical glass, which transforms the cottage into a palace, and the infant into a man, and contemplate objects in the true light of nature, we shall find, that the great dispute only is, who shall be esteemed the [Page 156] least ignorant, the least foolish, the least weak, the least indigent, the least corrupted; that pride and insolence, which subvert the parity of obliga­tion subsisting among all, should be banished from every human breast, and that those who move in the highest and most illustrious spheres, having the best opportunities of enlarging their minds, ought to regulate their opinions by their own knowledge, not by the ignorance of their inferi­ors, to acquire real dignity, by divesting them­selves of passions, which are born of ignorance, and nourished by delusion; and, by moderation, equity, affability, and condescension, to conciliate benevolence, ensure respect, make the rays of virtue eclipse the splendors of fortune, and esta­blish a throne which she neither can erect nor overturn.

Would men, divesting themselves, for a mo­ment, of the prejudices which birth, education, or luxurious habits, have fixed in their minds, sur­vey, with the eye of reason, the construction of society, the principles on which it rests, and the ends which it pursues, and then contemplate the nature and perfections of the universal parent— what a different light would be thrown on their condition and circumstances, and how different a prospect be disclosed to them, from that which [Page 157] they have been accustomed to behold through the mists of ignorance, or the twilight of self-decep­tion! Would it be possible for them to suppose that the Deity lavishes his bounty on individuals ca­priciously elected, merely for their pleasure and profit, and not with any view to the universal be­nefit; that he has bestowed on one authority and power, in order that he may encroach on the li­berties, invade the properties, and overawe the consciences of his brethren, and not that he may protect innocence, restrain oppression, and main­tain inviolate the interests of justice, of religion, and of truth; that, on another, he has conferred wealth and superfluity, only to furnish him with the means of indulging in luxury, or of wallow­ing in intemperance, and not to open to him a treasure for the supply of indigence, the relief of distress, the encouragement of industry, and the reward of merit; that he has adorned a third with sagacity and genius, that he may find an a­greeable amusement for himself, gratify his pas­sion for admiration, mislead the judgments, and corrupt the hearts of his fellow men, not that he may enlighten, and improve, and lead them to happiness, through the path of virtue? Can any man of a sound mind, who allows himself a mo­ment's reflection, impute such a scheme to infinite goodness and wisdom, or consider it in any other [Page 158] light than in that of the most atrocious rebellion against the Divine government?—A person, rais­ed to a high office, placed in exalted rank, or a­dorned by distinguished abilities, is established on an eminence that his views of the general good may be more extensive and correct, and that he may apply, to its advancement, the powers he possesses with the greater advantage and success. As on an eminence therefore, the eye is diverted from proximate to remoter objects; so, in an exalt­ed station, the narrow concerns of self should be less regarded than the grand and magnificent range which the public welfare presents to the mind.

Nor does this view of things diminish, in the smallest degree, the advantages resulting from eminent rank, fortune, or abilities; on the con­trary, it greatly enhances them. For, if we ex­clude the opportunities which these afford of widely diffusing beneficent influence, and, with the imitation of the divine perfections, of sharing in some measure the divine felicity; what else re­mains but the meanest gratifications of human na­ture, but an augmentation of misery with an aug­mentation of vice, and a total degradation of all that distinguishes man from the brutes? If the rich enjoy not the pleasure of munificence, of clo­thing [Page 159] the naked, of feeding the hungry, of sup­porting the falling family, of rearing the orphan, of sweetening the cup of shame-faced uncomplain­ing poverty, without ruffling the veil that hides her from public view; if the powerful are denied the satisfaction of protecting innocence, of restrain­ing oppression, of drawing modest merit from its retirement, and, by the just reward of honour, of rendering it conspicuous and exemplary, of de­fending substantial virtue against faction and in­trigue, and of promoting the public good by no­ble and useful undertakings; if the wise, the in­genious, and the learned, are denied the enjoy­ment of comforting affliction, of instructing igno­rance, of directing perplexity, of correcting pre­judice, and of reclaiming vice; what remains but the more copious indulgence of sensuality— but the gratifications of the most ruthless passions that convulse the breast which they occupy—and the indulgence of the most contemptible, though frequently the most pernicious, vanity, displayed by attempting to subvert the grand principles of morality, and to poison the divine consolations of religion? Is there in these any thing which a man of judgment would value, desire, and pursue, as primary objects? Were such a person informed, on his first setting out in life, that such would be all the enjoyment he should reap from the fondest [Page 160] objects of his pursuit—would he consider the pur­chase as a sufficient recompense for his toil and anxiety, his frequent mortifications, and assiduous study? I assert not that the man, who devotes wholly to selfish purposes the advantages he pos­sesses, has no pleasure, no enjoyment. The sen­sualist, the miser, the vain, the ambitious, the proud, have each their particular gratifications. But these gratifications are unmanly and base, and fall infinitely short of the delights of a faithful dis­charge of duty, and of the sublime enjoyments of beneficence. Nor can it be alledged that enjoy­ments being matters of taste, it is impossible to as­certain their comparative values; because every man will be partial to his own, and, while the generous extol the joys of beneficence, the selfish will ever find their happiness in those which cen­ter in themselves. For, in order to compare the different sources of felicity, it is necessary to taste them; and this can only be done by men of an exalted and capacious soul, who can relish in the highest degree both the pleasures which attach to self, and those which result from benevolence. By feeding the hungry, does any man spoil his own appetite? By relieving the distressed, does he diminish his own relish of easy circumstances? By maintaining peace and order in society, does he contract his imagination, or diminish its powers? [Page 161] By comforting the afflicted, by instructing the ig­norant, or by advising the perplexed, does he render his conception less clear, his judgment less solid, or his memory less tenacious? On the other hand, it is certain that a contracted selfishness weakens and extinguishes the benevolent affections, and excludes the pleasures they confer. The man who seeks in wealth only the means of indulging his sensuality, and promoting his convenience, who aspire at power, only to gratify his pride and ambition, or who pursues knowledge only for his own amusement or vanity—such a man can have but little relish of the joys that spring up and flourish in a social and benevolent heart ^*.

What is it that, in all the actions, and all the characters, whether presented by daily observati­on, recorded in history, or figured by imagination, excites admiration, and engages esteem? Is it merely extent of capacity, superiority of station, or largeness of fortune; or is it liberality of sen­timent, and kindness of heart▪ Place the faith­ful friend, the affectionate parent, the indulgent [Page 162] master, the generous patron, the incorrupt ma­gistrate, the genuine patriot, in the most disad­vantageous circumstances; let him be sunk in poverty, overwhelmed with disgrace, tortured with pain, he will still preserve his dignity, and command our respect! Nay, the less he enjoys of the advantages, and the more he suffers of the evils, of life, the more glorious will he appear! But no favorable concurrence of circumstances, neither the gifts of nature, the accomplishments of arts, nor the splendors of fortune will ever be able to bribe our esteem in behalf, I say, not of the sensualist, the villain, or the tyrant, but even of the unsocial solitary mortal, who, though he offers no positive injury to his species, yet with-holds his endeavors for their happiness! Nay, if such a supposition be not impious, remove good­ness from all the other divine attributes, and suppose the Supreme Being unconcerned for the happiness of his creation, and say whether his nature would then appear as amiable, adorable, and transcendently excellent, as it now appears to every reflecting mind. And if goodness con­stitute the supreme glory of the divine nature, that which gives to every other perfection its true beauty and light, and completes the real character of Deity—is it possible that any human [Page 163] excellence or advantage should compensate for the absence of this primary virtue?

If the true excellence of human nature, thus, consists in benignity, if this necessarily attracts the regard of the selfish themselves, how comes it to pass that so many, who have the noblest op­portunities of gratifying a disposition so beatific and glorious, can be reconciled to a contrary con­duct—to sensuality, oppression, and perversion of the finest abilities? The weakness, the blind­ness, and the corruption of human nature, are the only satisfactory causes that can be alledged.

But, even in actions the most apparently selfish and groveling, a discerning eye will be able to discover some faint gleams of generosity which illumine and recommend them. Sensuality is clothed with the specious coloring of sociality, of pleasure communicated as well as received, of jo­cularity and mirth, of freedom, and contempt of servile restraint. Oppression and tyranny are presented to the mind under the appearance of dignity, of a high sense of honor, a noble ambi­tion, attachment to party, nay, even of a love of justice. Without these fictitious images, the sensualist would appear to himself as the most con­temptible, [Page 164] and the oppressor as the most odious, of mankind.

But, why multiply arguments in a matter where a moment's feeling is more decisive than an age of reasoning? Had you ever a faithful friend, into whose bosom you poured all the secrets of your heart—a parent, whose burden of years you lightened, whose tottering limbs you support­ed—a child, whose assiduous duty, whose budding virtues, sweetened all your cares of the present, and brightened all your hopes of the future—did ever the sympathetic gush start in your eye at the sight of misery—did ever your hands stretch forth the unexpected relief, and dispel the gloom that hangs on the brow of woe, as the sun, bursting through the clouds, renews the face of nature— did you ever discharge an important trust with dignity, disinterestedness, and honor, and spread peace and joy among your fellow men, while the ear when it heard you blessed you, and the eye when it saw you gave witness to you ^*—say what delight these recollections afford—would you exchange them for a life-time of the most refined sensuality —for Peruvian treasures—or Asiatic power?

[Page 165]It appears, then, that the dignity of human nature consists not in the greatness of men's abi­lities, wealth, or dominion, but in expansion, and benignity of soul; that the former are only means of promoting the purposes of the latter, and signs that their possessors are particularly cal­led, by Divine appointment, to generous and elevated action; that one, who possesses all [...]se advantages, may be more contemptible than those, who, though devoid of them, have the heart which could apply them to their properends; and that one firm purpose of doing good will adorn a character more than the accutest understanding, the most opulent fortune, or the most exalted rank, unaccompanied with a virtuous disposition. Hence, to be filled with pride and contempt of those below us, on account of our talents, or ex­ternal circumstances, without any regard to the right application of them, is both to act unjustly, by acting inconsistently with the character of mem­bers of the community, and usurping the rights which belong to it alone, and to overturn the ba­sis on which true superiority must ever rest. It is to content ourselves with the shadow, without the substance, of greatness; and, while God and men unite in calling us to a pre-eminence and happiness which neither time, nor fortune, nor [Page 166] death, can remove, to descend to the most con­temptible of all conditions, by perverting the most splendid powers, and the richest opportuni­ties—to embrace the hideous form of misery while celestial felicity courts us—to change a fer­tile field into a barren heath—to dwell in a dun­geon while we may walk in the most resplendent day. In a word, it is the duty of those who are raised to the higher stations of life, possessed of the gifts of fortune, or endowed with superior abilities—to maintain justice, order and peace, in society; to study and pursue the public good; to relieve distress, to encourage industry, to re­ward merit, to exercise condescension and affa­bility towards their inferiors; to cultivate and extend useful and elegant knowledge; to esta­blish, and inculcate, the grand principles of mo­rality and religion, to enlighten, humanise, and improve mankind, and to lead them to virtue and happiness.

Those who employ in this manner the oppor­tunities and talents with which they are furnished by Divine Providence, are entitled to the highest veneration of mankind. It is, then, that nobi­lity, illustrious station, or distinguished parts, ap­pear in their full splendor, and exhibit their pos­sessors as a species of divinities upon earth, who, [Page 167] bearing the resemblance of God as far as human nature will permit, share also his felicity, and claim the homage of the world. Let them be displayed as the instruments of beneficence, they will reign with an irresistible and permanent do­minion, which neither envy, nor malice, nor faction, nor tumult, will be able to overturn; for it is founded in the hearts of men who, feeling, and rejoicing in, its blissful influences, must cease to love themselves, before they can wish to with­draw their respect and obedience.

But, when riches are only the fund of a sordid avarice, or the fountain of licentiousness and pro­fligacy; when wisdom is perverted into craft, and abilities transformed into the ministers of ca­bal and intrigue, of deception and ignoble policy, establish, uphold, or extend, civil or religious despotism; when resplendent genius is employed in rebellion against God, and in the corruption of men, by propagating irreligion and immorality; when pre-eminence and authority are, in civil life, used as the instruments of pride, injustice, oppression, and cruelty, or supreme power, im­pelled by insatiable ambition, deluges the earth with blood, and spreads devastation and misery through the habitations of men—reason easily pe­netrates the false glitter that surrounds them, [Page 168] and perceives their deformity and blackness. She declares their lustre to resemble that of those noxious vapours, which, rising from the earth, are kindled into a flash in the sky; and terminate in noise and destruction; while those who apply their talents, their riches, or power, to the be­neficent ends for which they are destined, are like that glorious luminary in the heavens, which shines with a constant and salutary light.

Thou proud insolent mortal! who lookest down from thy lofty station on thy brethren of men, and imaginest them only formed to bring their gifts to thy altar, and to bend before thee with servile homage, know that thy elevation only renders thee more conspicuously contemptible! Consider that, should those, whom thou so inso­lently despisest, adopt thy principles, and burst the bands of social union by which alone they are made thy dependents, the power is theirs, and thine only the shadow and the phantom. Should they only withdraw their support without inflict­ing any positive evil, thou wouldst precipitately sink into a degradation lower than that of the meanest laborer. Less inured to want, thou wouldst be less able to provide for its supply, and have less reason to expect it from the benignity of others. Consider that, even in thy present [Page 169] elevation, thou art really more dependent than the most ignoble of the sons of men. If he is least dependent who stands least in need of others, he is surely most dependent who stands most in need of them. With our rank, our necessities, our demands, our cares, increase. The links by which we are joined to our fellow men are multiplied, and the very circumstance which en­larges our influence diminishes our internal strength. He, therefore, who has the greatest number of dependents, has only the greatest num­ber of those to whom he is indebted for conside­ration and power. The more lofty and spacious the edifice is, with the greater precipitation, if its pillars are sapped, does it rush into ruin. Learn then to seek thy importance and dignity, where only thou wilt find them, by discharging every duty which thy station requires, and by diffusing, by thy affability and beneficence, happiness among mankind. Relinquishing the phantoms of pride enjoy the substantial pre-eminence of virtue.

But ye! who employ your distinguished abili­ties, or exalted power, for the purposes for which Providence has bestowed them, fear not that any portion of that respect, obedience, and honor, to which you are entitled, will be withdrawn. Goodness, moving in an elevated sphere, and [Page 170] guided by distinguished wisdom, shines with such an amiable lustre, possesses such a commanding in­fluence, and is so irresistably attractive, that she reigns over the hearts of men, and is often con­strained to blush at the homage she receives, be­cause it approaches adoration. Power may inti­midate, splendour may dazzle, genius may sur­prise and delight, but goodness alone can captivate the heart!

CHAPTER VI. DUTIES common to ALL with regard to the USE of their OPPORTUNITIES and TALENTS.

WHOEVER attentively examines the human constitution will discover in it several inconsisten­cies not so easily accounted for. Thus, mankind have a strong propensity to society, and are mise­rable without it; yet in society they are prone to indulge the most unsocial dispositions. Nature con­stantly draws them to their species, and points out their sweetest enjoyments, as solely derivable from this source; yet the selfish part of our frame, coun­teracting this dictate of nature, corrupts the grand streams of happiness, by turning them into its own channel, and, instead of allowing the individual to act as a member of the social body, and to receive from this capacity his highest dignity and enjoy­ment, endeavours to render society subservient to the individual. There is in all men a wonderful [Page 172] fondness of independence, and a no less surprising desire of the service and respect of others. This is, in fact, to join the greatest contradictions, to force in­to union things absolutely incompatible; for inde­pendence can only be secured, by an entire sepa­ration from mankind, by relinquishing every claim to their good offices and regards, by renouncing every social enjoyment, and by deriving happi­ness from the stores of self. As soon as man en­ters into the social circle, and shares its beneficial influences, he relinquishes his separate existence, and, forming a part of a system, is limited by the relations which he bears to the other parts, and to the whole, becomes bound to contribute to their support and perfection, according to the sup­port and benefit which he receives from them, and is required to exert a beneficial activity pro­portioned to the influence he possesses. Whoever with-holds from the general good any portion of useful effort he is able to bestow, is unfaithful to the conditions, on which he enjoys the benefits of society, and violates that equality of obligation which subsists among all mankind. He also frus­trates, as far as lies in his power, that plan of Di­vine wisdom, whereby the general felicity is in­tended. For it is certain that the Universal Pa­rent has distributed among men such a portion of abilities and powers, as, duly cultivated and im­proved, [Page 173] would render the condition of all com­fortable, in every respect, and happy. In the present state of society, some are, indeed, over­burthened with labour, and enjoy but a small de­gree of convenience; while others loiter in indo­lence, and consume the fruits of industry. This, however, could never be the case, did every one cultivate with diligence his peculiar talents, and discharge the duties of his peculiar station. It is the neglect of this alone that makes it necessary to overload some, in order to support that part of the common burden, from which others have treacherously withdrawn themselves.

Hence the principle of equality, above illustrat­ed, requires not only that all men should religi­ously regard the rights of others, but that they should exert themselves, to the utmost of their ability, for the common benefit. Whoever re­jects this requisition descends below the rank of a member of society, and, instead of rising, as is foolishly supposed, above the rest of mankind, by a life of idleness and dissipation, degrades himself to the condition of a begger, who lives on the la­bour of others, without making any just return for it. For, however strange it may sound, it is undoubted, that society has a right to the best exertion of all its members, of the highest as well [Page 174] as of the lowest, of the most opulent as well as of the poorest, for the common good.

The question is not, what advantage every in­dividual is content to reap from his own powers and opportunities, but what degree of general u­tility he can effectuate. These powers have not been bestowed on him, by their divine author, solely for his own use, but chiefly for the benefit of the human race, to whose happiness he is des­tined to contribute. This proper exercise of the powers of every individual all the other members of society have a right to demand, on fair and equal terms. The equivalent every individual ob­tains by the advantages and comforts which he receives from social life, and still more by that su­perfluity which enables any one to live in sloth. He is a debtor to the grand community of man­kind, and his creditors can call him to repay.

It is true that, since it is so difficult to deter­mine the extent of every one's capacity, and the exact measure of the social advantages he enjoys, no precise claim can be established in every parti­cular case. But, the general obligation remains equally strong on all, and none can wilfully vio­late it without incurring the blame of his own mind, and the displeasure of the author of his ex­istence. [Page 175] The principle, therefore, on which some ancient legislators prohibited any citizen, of what­ever condition or rank, from living in idleness, was perfectly just in itself, although the execution of any law grounded upon it must ever be ex­tremely difficult, and might occasion greater in­conveniences than those which it should be intend­ed to obviate.

As indolence, and the neglect of opportunities of utility, are highly unjust, so they are extreme­ly contemptible. For, what character can be more the object of contempt, than that of a per­son who, though endowed with active powers, and furnished with ample opportunities of benefit­ing that particular society to which he belongs, and from which he receives constant defence and protection, yet lives on the labour either of his predecessors or contemporaries, without testifying any approbation of their industry, by which he subsists, or making any efforts to imitate their laudable example? What can degrade a man more in his own eyes, than the consideration that he has done nothing to benefit his friends, to o­blige his neighbours, to educate and establish his children, or to promote the interest and honour of his country; that he has buried his talents, de­feated the end of Providence in bestowing them, [Page 176] and that, when he is cut off by death, the world will be delivered from an unnecessary burden, from a putrid excrescence?

On the other hand, what can convey, to any person, a higher idea of his own worth and im­portance, than the reflection that, though but an individual endowed with one class of abilities, yet, by their improvement, he not only enlarges his own enjoyments, but diffuses around him the most joyous influences, and promotes the welfare of the whole human race; that, though retired from public view, he appears in the useful productions of his application and genius; that, though infirm in body, he renders, by his inventions, the labour of the strong and hardy both more easy to them­selves, and more beneficial to others; and that, though devoid of public authority, he strength­ens the political union, and advances public order by the just principles which he establishes and elu­cidates; that, taking another view of the case, though ignorant and illiterate, yet he contributes, by his toil and dexterity, to the instruction and improvement of mankind, while he provides sus­tenance and leisure for those who are endowed with genius and learning, or placed in those sta­tions where plans of general welfare can be best conceived, and proposed with the greatest pros­pects [Page 177] of success? In fine, it is an exalting consider­ation, that, however obscure a person is in him­self, he is an instrument in the hand of Providence for communicating to mankind, not only the ne­cessaries of life, but also its highest ornaments and delights, and even of raising their views a­bove this terrestrial abode, and directing them to a state of endless felicity, the certainty of which cannot fail to produce the most salutary effects on every part of their conduct. No person is so mean and insignificant, as not to affect some part of the community. In a grand piece of machinery, the smaller wheels and pins, though less observable, are not on that account less necessary than others to the just motion an [...]ffect of the whole. In like manner, the conduct of the inferior members of society not only affects their own happiness, or that of their immediate connections, but diffuses its influence, though in a less perceptible manner than that of the higher ranks, through the whole social body. Nay, I may assert that, as these compose the greater part of the community, their useful industry is still more requisite to the general happiness, and that the meanest labourer, who diligently and honestly exerts himself in his sphere, is entitled to share, with the most exalted of the sons of men, the glorious appellation of the friend of mankind, and of the approved of God! Should [Page 178] any whom fortune depressed, or insolence laughs to scorn, but whose soul, rising above his situation, feels the intrinsic dignity of man, and laments the nar­rowness of his terrestrial sphere, cast his eye on these pages, let him be comforted and strengthen­ed by the reflections above mentioned. There is something in the idea that exalts the mind, that kindles the desire of usefulness, that rouses activi­ty, and puts every faculty in motion. When we consider it, we seem desirous of breaking the in­glorious chains of indolence, and pant for some worthy object, some important pursuit, to exercise the generous energies of the soul!

If the consideration of the importance of the meanest member of society should prove a strong argument to useful diligence, how much greater force must this argument acquire with regard to those whom fortune and rank particularly distin­guish▪ Their influence, either good or bad, is very extensive. First communicated to nume­rous connections and dependents, it is conveyed through them to other contiguous relations, till it reach at last the extremities of the social system. Were this influence always of a beneficial nature, society would feel its salutary effects through all its frame, and, instead of that distempered and deformed face which it so frequently wears, would [Page 179] assume the most healthy and smiling aspect. The face of nature, long hid in fog, or ravaged by tempests, receives not a more delightful transfor­mation from the returning sun, than society would receive from those benignant lights which thus illumined and invigorated it.

In what light, then, must those persons appear, who, because their external circumstances free them from the necessity of labouring for their sub­sistence, imagine themselves exempted from eve­ry species of useful exertion; who, because they are provided with the abundant supply of every corporeal want, think themselves under no obli­gation to improve their minds, or to engage in any pursuit conducive to the common welfare; who either yawn away their time in the most le­thargic indolence, or devote it to the most insigni­ficant, frivolous, or vicious enjoyments; who waste ingenuity in mere ostentation, degrade rea­son to purvey for appetite, and make recreation their study, and amusement their business—in a word, whose whole life is either a blank, or a per­version of existnece. The phantom of pleasure, like an ignis fatuus, instantly disappears, when they think they can seize it. The same insipid round is run over a thousand times. The senses are jaded, the appetites cloyed. Tired at last [Page 180] with the tedious pursuit, those votaries of plea­sure, like the top that has long been lashed, dose in the arms of indolence. When they wake at times from their insensibility, their minds are haunted with all the chimeras, all the monsters of vapour and spleen, which often drive them to burst, by death, the ponderous fetters with which they are loaded.

I will not assert, that all who live in this man­ner are sensible of the criminality of their con­duct, and perceive that, however averse from injustice, breach of trust, and cruelty in their dealings with particular persons, they yet involve themselves, by this negative vice, this neglect of the due improvement of their talents and oppor­tunities in these crimes with respect to their spe­cies in general. No; I am convinced that, if they clearly perceived the tendency of their con­duct, many of them, at least, would review it with sorrow and disgust. Ignorance, and wrong habits contracted in early life, more than any vicious disposition, are the causes of a course of action so disgraceful and unhappy to themselves, and so detrimental to society.

This reflection, however, if it diminish their criminality, augments the folly of neglecting to [Page 181] cultivate those rational faculties, which would afford them just notions of their duty, and disclose an elevated region of pursuit and happiness. For, if they rightly apprehended the relation in which all the members of society stand to each other, they would perceive that it is not only the rapa­cious invader, or the secret purloiner, of proper­ty, who must be reputed injurious, but also the indolent and the dissipated, who deprives his fel­low men of any benefit which he is called to be­stow. They would see that they are under obli­gations not only to abstain from positive violations of justice, but also to discharge many duties of distinguished utility to mankind. To these they would acknowledge themselves particularly call­ed by the appointment of Heaven. Relieved from the necessity of providing for their corpo­real wants, their minds are furnished with great­er freedom for the exercise of its nobler powers, and with a more extensive range for the discove­ry and prosecution of schemes of public good. And as those clouds that obscure their understand­ing began to remove, an hundred untasted springs of felicity would open on their hearts. For, if every person of fortune and rank employed his most active endeavors to excite and maintain a spirit of industry and virtue among his dependents, his neighbors, and fellow-citizens, he would [Page 182] find his time and attention so happily engaged, that he would survey with contempt his former pleasures; he would seem to breathe a purer air, and to live in a region of perpetual sunshine, while the vapours of low ambition and of sensual indulgence rolled below his feet!

Man can only be happy in as far as his powers are duly exercised; and those powers, which are the most elevated and capacious, afford the great­est sum of felicity. The same means, therefore, which render any man most highly beneficial to others, also increase the sum of his own enjoy­ments, and superadd to them that most delightful of all satisfactions—the consciousness of having discharged, to the utmost of his power, his duty as a member of the community, and fulfilled the intention of his Creator in sending him into the world. The neglect of the due improvement of any power, or of any opportunity of honorable action, detracts just so much from personal enjoy­ment. As want of circulation corrupts the air, and stagnation the water, so, indolence superin­duces a torpor on the mind, which unfits it even for the more refined pleasures of sense, and de­prives it of that great sweetener of every enjoy­ment, the reflection that it is the produce of our own exertions, and the natural recompense of [Page 183] merit. With regard to distinction, acquired by successful exertions of abilities, it is certain, that the same obligation which demanded the first dis­play of them, requires their continuance while any benefit can thence result to mankind, and their possessors are able to confer it. He who has al­ready exerted powers, by which the aggregate of common good has been increased, has pledged himself to a course of distinguished utility, and, if he relaxes or ceases his efforts, while his faculties are still vigorous, is more culpable than if he had never entered on the honorable career; because practice procures facility, and success should ani­mate to fresh enterprise. If selfish ambition should, as is in this case most probable, be the sole motive to action, let it be considered, that it is perhaps more difficult to preserve than to purchase reputa­tion and homage. The ensigns of honor attract the public eye; elevation places men in a more conspicuous light, where every defect, as well as every virtue, is more clearly discerned, and more nicely scrutinized. If those, therefore, who are thus distinguished, are not able to support their situation with dignity, their disgrace will, from the disappointed expectations of mankind, be more humiliating, and the contempt which they incur more general. Envy will magnify every fault, annihilate every virtue, and lash them with the [Page 184] laurels which she has torn from their brows. Hap­py for themselves, and happy for the world, whose interests are always hurt by the degradati­on of merit, if they had never risen above the vulgar level!

CHAPTER VII. CONCLUSION.

THE view of society, and of the principles on which it is founded, disclosed in this Essay, evinces the obligation of all its members, of whatever rank or description, to contribute their most active and honest endeavors for the common good. In­deed this obligation is sufficiently inculcated on the lower classes, by the necessity of laboring for their daily subsistence, and by the dreadful conse­quences which idleness produces to them and their families. With regard to these, it is, therefore, less necessary to unfold the full force of this obli­gation, than with respect to those whose easy cir­cumstances, seeming to render them independent of their fellow men, seem also to exempt them from every debt beyond the limits of strict justice. This independence we have shewn to be purely imaginary, and utterly incompatible with the prin­ciples of social union. The chain of dependence [Page 186] runs equally through all the orders of society, and binds every individual in these orders. While it excludes the extravagant claims of self-love, and subjects men to more generous and salutary principles, it establishes at the same time a system which, if universally observed, would fully secure the most essential interests of each individual, by settling them on the broad and immoveable basis of general welfare. For, did the rich employ their wealth to supply the wants of the poor; the poor, their labor to administer to the ease and convenience of the rich; the great, their power and authority to protect the weak and defenceless; the wise, the ingenious, and the learned, their abilities to instruct and counsel the ignorant and illiterate; did every one, in short, impart to his fellow men a portion of the fruits of his talents and advantages; it is impossible that any should repine at another's possessing what was employed for his own benefit, nay, was made more subser­vient to his use, than if he himself were the pro­prietor. For no individual could so perfectly cul­tivate all the different talents, necessary for his support and welfare, which are distributed among the species, and, while some particular one is al­lotted to each, are all carried to the highest im­provement of which they are susceptible.

[Page 187]Thus, the principles of equality which we have established, at the same time that they repress the insolence of pride, the outrages of oppression, and the dissipation of sensuality, confirm, nevertheless, the necessity of subordination, and the just de­mands of lawful authority. They maintain in­violate every natural and every civil distinction, draw more closely every social tie, and unite all in one harmonious and justly proportioned system, which brings men together on the even ground of the inherent rights of human nature, of reci­procal obligation, and of a common relation to the community. Yet, for the maintenance of this equality itself, they separate them into dif­ferent classes, and invest them with different ca­pacities and offices. Thus are the poor and the mean reconciled to their circumstances, or com­forted under them—the opulent and the power­ful are excited to beneficence and condescension; the ingenious and acute are directed to the best use of their abilities; and all are linked together by the powerful ties of common interests, and of reciprocal duty. Happy those, whose souls are capable of rising to such enlarged views of things, and are animated by them to a conduct worthy of human nature, worthy of Christianity, which re­presents men to each other as children of one pa­rent, as members of one family, as journeying to­gether [Page 188] through the checkered scenes of this tran­sitory world, towards a region where; all the distinctions of poverty and riches, of obscurity and splendor, of power and meanness, shall cease, every inequality disappear; where virtue alone shall be exalted, and vice degraded forever!

It must, indeed, be acknowledged, that this theory is too pure and exalted to admit of a com­plete conformity of practice. But man is quali­fied for endless improvements in knowledge and virtue, and the happiness which he attains will exactly correspond to the degrees of his progress. In every art and science there is an ideal model, which can never be reached even by the most ex­act and beautiful execution. What Cicero ob­serves with regard to a perfect orator, that he had never seen any speaker that could come up to his notions of eloquence, is not limited to that art, but is equally applicable to every other. It is, however, to be observed, that even the excellence which is attained, is wholly referable to the per­fect standard previously existing in the artists mind. In proportion, therefore, as clear and elevated ideas of excellence are entertained in re­ligion, in morality, and in politics, and action is directed by these, human conduct and happiness will be improved and exalted. If, on the other [Page 189] hand, low and groveling standards are adopted, and principles are regulated by established prac­tice, not practice reformed by the genuine princi­ples of nature, mankind will continue to tread in the old and muddy path, and the progress of the world will be marked with degeneracy and degradation.

It is the constant objection of those, who are either averse from improvement, or too indolent and too timid to begin or advance it, that the per­fection aimed at is too high for human nature. They thus employ the existence of abuses and er­rors as a reason for perpetuating them. But, if the same reasoning had always been considered as just, mankind would, at this day, dwell in caves, feed upon acorns, fall down before the works of their own hands, and be bound in the heavy chain of Heathen ignorance and supersti­tion. The institutions and refinements of civil society must appear to a savage as extravagant and impracticable, as the finest theory of moral sentiment and action appears to those whose souls are immersed in sensuality, or fettered by self-interest. The question is not, what is the pre­sent practice of mankind, but what they are qua­lified ultimately to attain; not how far any theo­ry is conformable to the present state of things, [Page 190] but how far it is founded in nature, adapted to the human faculties, and conducive to human felicity.

If the principles illustrated in this Essay should be devoid of every other recommendation, they have at least, that which is no inconsiderable one, of being conformable to the doctrines of Christia­nity ^*. For, although some philosophers, who have pretended great zeal for the rights and the happiness of mankind, have manifested, at the same time, a strange antipathy to every kind of religion, and particularly to the Christian, it will be found, by every impartial inquirer, that the religion of Jesus Christ inculcates and sanctions every principle on which public and private hap­piness can be built. It is true that Christianity has frequently been most shamefully corrupted, and, in that corrupted form, produced the most dreadful calamities. But, to explode Christianity on this account, is just as sensible as to forbid man­kind the use of water, air, or fire, because these elements have often been the vehicles of destruc­tion. Whoever attempts to erect any system of policy to the exclusion of religion, betrays great ignorance of human nature, and great indiffe­rence for human happiness. Man is a religious creature, and is drawn to his Creator by all the [Page 191] prin [...]es of his constitution—by the sense of his [...]becility, by conscience, by gratitude and ad­miration, and by his reason when duly improved. The grand requisite, then, is to procure for him a religion pure, simple, beneficent, and consolo­tary. This will be found only in the religion of Jesus Christ, as it is exhibited in the sacred wri­tings. Here the most perfect standard of duty is erected, in order to engage man to an endless progress in virtue; a sufficient remedy is provided for his deviations from it, when accompanied with penitence; the most glorious rewards are offered to his persevering endeavors; and the strongest succours are provided for his weakness. Such a religion powerfully strengthens every so­cial and civil obligation, and prepares men for heaven, by rendering them useful on earth.