OF THE ENGLISH OLD SYSTEM OF CROPS.

UNTIL about the middle of the present cen­tury one of the best common courses of farm­ing in England consisted of a fallow, which, however, left the soil exposed to the scorch­ing sun during the hottest season, without any shading crop: on this wheat was sowed; peas or beans followed the wheat crop; then barley (or oats or both) in rotation, on one moiety of the farm, during ten or twenty years: the other moiety being at the same time in common pasture grasses. When a change was to be made, the moiety in grass was ploughed and prepared; and then thrown into the rotation of crops as above; and that which had been in crops, was sown with mixed grass seeds (not clover) to lay as before ten or twenty years. The whole arable or ploughable part of the farm was thus divided into moieties, or nearly so, exclusive of the home­stead and standing meadow. So that a farm of 300 acres (besides homestead and meadow) ad­mitted of 150 acres in grass, lay or old field, and 150 in crops. Their fields bearing crops were seldom equal in quantity: but it is here convenient to consider them so:

THE dung added, improves; yet the hot sun shining on the naked soil, exhales much of the valuable contents of the ground. ^*

THE above is of the crops of one field during four years; or of the four fields in one year. The following is a plan of the whole farm (home­stead and meadow excepted) with the rotation of its crops in those four fields, during four years, and the moiety in grass or lay old field, during the ten or twenty years.

[Page 4]

THE medium produce of those fields might be more than is above stated. But it is well to sup­pose, the quantity they produced per acre was the same as in this statement, and as in the next fol­lowing: nor is it material what the quantity is, when how much the English soil of how much ours gives, is not under consideration.

ENGLISH NEW SYSTEM OF CROPS.

THE better course of husbandry now well ex­perienced and approved of in England, is found­ed on these principles: To fallow ^*, and to have [Page 5] growing on the fallow, a shading and ameliorating crop; never to sow any sort of corn immediately after corn of any kind; to sow clover with or on every field of grain; and by a course of well cho­sen crops and the shaded fallows, prevent the soil from resting, hardening or running into weeds and common grasses. Thus entire farms are con­tinued in a constant rotation under 5 to 6 or 8 divisions; so as with the clean, mellow state of the whole arable, to give a pleasing system of business, which improves the soil and procures a considerably larger income.

IN their sandy light lands, turnips in a well prepared soil, are a common fallow crop instead of peas or beans; the turnips being thinned greatly, and frequently handhoed, or if in rows horsehoed, so as to keep the ground clean and well stirred, and they are always on manured ground.

[Page 6]

HERE the crops are the same as the preceeding—but the course is different. In that the clover is annual; in this it continues two years, and is inferior to the former. Clover only one year on the ground, is the most recent course. When it is continued two or more years, it lets in weeds and some binding of the ground, to a degree which occasioned the saying, that the ground becomes "clover sick." [Page 7] But yearly renewing the clover, in the rotation of crops, neither admits of weeds or a binding of the ground. The clover in this case, being suf­ficiently thick and well sowed, effectually shades and mellows the soil, without having time al­lowed it to decline.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ENGLISH OLD AND NEW SYSTEMS OF CROPS.

UPON comparing the new with the old courses of crops in England, it occurs that the 120 acres in clover, may be superior to the 150 acres of common grasses on the hidebound soil of the lay or old field; and that the grain and straw is supe­rior as 300 to 185. Peas and beans are allowed to be inoffensive, as is clover, and even amelio­rating. They all shade the ground during the hottest time of the year. All corns impoverish; and withal the small kinds let in weeds; which, with rest, bind and foul the soil.

No. I. has two fields ploughed and cleaned, namely, the fallow (a naked one) and the pea or bean field; the growing crop of the last, shel­ters the soil from extreme exhalation. This is the only ameliorating crop against the two ex­hausting crops, wheat and barley. No. II. has one horsehoed or ploughed field, in a fallow crop of peas or beans; and three fields of ameliorating [Page 8] productions, which are peas, clover, clover, a­gainst two exhausters, wheat and barley. It is to be observed, that the field-bean in England, tho' small, is of the nature of the garden or Wind­sor bean. It grows upright, and giving but a partial shade, is not fully an ameliorating crop, [...] and well horsehoed in the inter­ [...] between the rows. Neither are turnips or potatoes good fallow crops, unless they are cul­tivated in the like manner. They always are on manured ground. Peas soon covering and shading the ground, are good fallow crops, without ma­nure and even without horsehoing.

OF THE AMERICAN OLD SYSTEM OF CROPS.

WHEN in America a farm is divided into three fields, the common course is maiz ^*, wheat (or rye), and rubbish pasture. When in four fields, it is maiz, naked fallow, wheat, and the like mean pasture: or maiz, wheat, lay or poor pa­sture during two years. And whilst in some parts of America, the fields are 4 or 5, in other parts the divisions are as low as 2. Altho' 5 are better than 4; and 4 better than 3; yet the best of these admit not of a proper course or ro­tation of crops, especially when maiz is one of [Page 9] them. So mean are the productions of the 3 and 4 field divisions, when [...] con­tinued a crop, that they will not allow of being rated by the acre, near so high as the present statements allow to either mode of the English husbandry or, as we may believe, to the Ame­rican husbandry, when practised according to the improved principles of cropping, with or without maiz. Two exhausting corn crops, perpetually ta­ken from 3 or 4 fields, after some years, will scarce­ly admit of 8 bushels of wheat an acre on com­mon land, one year with another ^*: but, suppose,

[Page 10] IF clover seed had been sowed with or on the wheat [...] the lay fields would have given better pasture than when the lay is left to run into rubbish grass and weeds: but either is far inferior to the new courses. No. III. & IV. give light crops, mostly of a cheap corn, very poor pasture, and but little hay (if any) for the emolument of the farmer, the comfort of a stock of hidebound beasts, and the preservation of a soil, which is in an obvious consumption. Un­der such severe treatment, land is continually losing strength; and it may be, greater pro­ductions are here allowed than the old settled maiz farms yield, and than new ones can long con­tinue to yield under the old habits of a less rational mode of farming, if it may be called farming.

WE almost universally cultivate one field in maiz, whatever may be in the other fields. The maiz being frequently ploughed (horsehoed) ^*, the ground is thereby kept clean, and gives a fallow [Page 11] with a crop: but it is an ill chosen crop for a fal­low, because of its giving only a trifle of shade to the fresh exposed soil, and because it is corn, to be succeeded by another crop of corn; both terrible exhausters. Some farmers sow wheat on this maiz-field, before the maiz is ripe, on a clean and light soil. Others delay sowing it till the ensuing summer, when the soil being some­what settled and in weeds, they plough, harrow and sow it with wheat. Of the two evils, far­mers differ in their choice. I have known some of them, who had practised both methods, re­turn to the former, because the latter was, as they judged, more injurious to the soil than the former method.

AMERICAN NEW FALLOW-CROP METHOD; WITH AND WITHOUT MAIZ.

MAIZ, taken into a rotation under the new system of crops, according to the new principles of husbandry, occasions some difficulties, which seem best overcome by increasing the number of fields. Our husbandmen are so used to this kind of corn, that scarcely any appear disposed to give up the culture of it for productions, which are much milder, in their effects on land.

CLOVER-SEED.

THIS is an important article in the improved system of crops: but its bearing some price or costing some labour to obtain it, renders it a bug­bear to common husbandmen, whose habits have diverted them from the large use of it. It is indeed absolutely necessary, that it should be a common crop in rotation with other articles of crop. And it is hoped, there are farmers spirit­ed and determined enough to defeat the objec­tions; and who will consider the cost not charge­able merely to the crop of clover, but to the whole round of crops; the clover being so essen­tial thereto that without it, the soil, the cattle, and the corn crops would greatly suffer; and the farmer's income, his reputation, and his indepen­dency [Page 23] would be lessened. If 4lbs. of clean clo­ver seed, when sown with such a box as is descri­bed below, clothe the ground as well with plants as 10 or 12lbs. sown in the common broad-cast way, of which I have had a little experience, then a bushel of seed will sow 15 acres; which is a cost of only 5 shillings an acre. Thirty loads of dung per acre ( unbought) would cost the far­mer four times as much for loading, carrying and dispersing them on the field; and, if bought, many times more. He can manure, or ameliorate 100 acres with clover more certainly than he can 20 from his dungheap; and moreover in the time that his clover is sheltering the soil, perspiring its excrementitious effluvia on the ground, dropping its putrid leaves, and mellowing the ground with its tap roots, it gives full food to the stock of cattle, keeps them in heart, and increases the dunghill. Nor is the amelioration by clover very inferior to that by dung, as this is commonly managed. In some respects it is preferable. With dung, in­numerable seeds of weeds are carried out and sown on the fields: not so of clover, when [...] is well cleaned. Clover is the best preparative for a crop of wheat. Dung inclines wheat to run more into straw than [...] grain. Wheat on clo­ver has the best grain and the fullest crop.

[Page 24] THE farmer, to whom these sketches are more immediately addressed, gave me a pleasing ac­count of some improvements in the method of gathering and cleaning clover seed. But my memory has not retained enough of it to enable me to describe them particularly. In general, the clover heads are rippled off by a simple ma­chine, moved by a horse, so as to gather and throw into a carriage the seed of 5 acres in a day. The heads are carried to an oil-mill, (having two stones rolled in the manner of tanners bark stones) which separates from the haulm, full five bushels a day.

TWO fields, 50 acres each, being in clover, one or a part of one may be kept up for giving seed in August, after cutting and feeding off the early growth. In 10 days the seed may be gathered at a small expence; and in 10 more 50 bushels may be separated from the haulm, and cleaned with a san, or with sieves. Whatever may be the medium produce, I count on only one bushel of seed from an acre. Of this seed 7 to 10 or more bushels may be sown on the two fifty acre fields in wheat and barley; say 10 bushels sown; other 10 bushels may be kept, lest there should happen to be a failure of seed in the next crop.

[Page 25] A BOX for sowing clover seed on wheat beds (rather than ridges) seven feet wide, including the water or opening furrow, was made of light half inch plank, for the sides, bottom and divisions. It was seven feet long, five or six inches wide, that the seed, laying thin, may easily shift about and not press heavily on the outlet holes. It was three inches deep, and was divided into seven parts, each division or receptacle having two holes bored through the bottom, half an inch in diameter, and placed diagonally; the holes were then singed with a hot iron rod to smooth them; square pieces of strong writing-paper were pasted over the holes, on the inside of the box; these had, each of them, a hole burnt through with coarse knitting needles: it is tried then, with seed shook gently through the holes as you walk on a floor or carpet; and the holes are enlarged by the same hot knitting needles, as far as there may be occasion for dropping a due quantity of seed. It was used for sowing other small, round seeds, (as turnip and mustard seeds,) the old papers being taken of, and new ones pasted on, and then holes burnt suitable to the seeds. At about a third of the distance from each end of the box, were fastened strong leather straps; by which the box was held, and a little agitated in carrying it before the seedsman, in a direction crossing the beds or [Page 26] ridges, whilst the seedsman walked along the beds.

THE only comparative experiment, made by me, of clover seed sown with the hand box above described, against broadcast sowing, was thus: In the moment when a seedsman, long used to sow clover seed, was sowing seed in the chaff at the rate of 12 lbs. of clean seed, according to his estimation, I sowed clean seed on several lands or ridges with the box. After sowing about 200 yards in length, the seed put into the box did not appear reduced in quantity, and I feared it was sown too thin. But the growth of clover from the box sowing, proved to be thicker and much more equally distant, plant from plant, than that from the broadcast, and the plants were suf­ficiently close. These operations left the seeds on the top earth, of the same field of wheat, with­out any means used to cover them. The time of sowing was about the middle of March, whilst there were yet light frosts. It was a season in which I had often sowed clover seed in the chaff, and left it uncovered, without ever experiencing any loss. When clean clover seeds are sown on a clean ground and harrowed in, numbers are smothered under small lumps of earth, as well as under large ones—not so of seed left on the ground uncovered, during the frosts, in March rather than earlier. It therefore seems proper [Page 27] that much more than 4 lbs. an acre should be sowed, when the seed is to be covered.

BEAN DRILL.

LET not the novelty or labor of sowing beans in field husbandry, be made a difficulty to the application of them in a system of crops. They may be dropped by hand. But a simple and cheap machine may be made for dropping them in clusters as quick as a horse drawing it can walk. Two wheels, made of an inch plank doubled, turn an axis, of about 5 inches diameter, having notches on one line round it, from each of which 3 or 4 beans are discharged at the same time into a furrow opened by a ploughshare or wooden coulter, the ground having been first well prepa­red—a stave or a little rake, at the tail of the drill, covering the furrow at the same time. If the wheels are two feet in diameter, they will have a circumference of 75 inches, which divided by 10½ inches give 7 for the number of notches round the axis, for dropping the seeds at 10½ inches a-part in the rows.—I drilled beans with such an instrument.

SOWING WHEAT ON CLOVER.

THE language of farmers on this head is, that wheat on clover is to be sown on "one earth"— [Page 28] "one ploughing." To conform to this idea, I conducted the business, on 15 acres, in this man­ner:

1. THE clover, having been cut once and then pastured, was turned in deep, by a plough.

2. THE wheat was sowed, broadcast.

3. THE harrow followed twice, in the same di­rection in which the clover was ploughed in.

4. THE sown wheat was then rolled.

THE crop stood well and yielded satisfactorily. It grew near two miles from my other field wheat, on a soil not quite similar, so that a just compa­rison could not be made between them. The operations immediately followed each other, with­out any pause between them. The plough, the harrow, the seed, &c. were all ready on the spot, before the plough proceeded.

MR. YOUNG was requested, in Ireland, to in­struct the farmers of that country in proper cour­ses of crops: and when he comes to direct them how to sow wheat on clover, he only says— ‘The clover is to be well ploughed in, with an even, regular furrow; and the wheat sown and harrowed well.’ Which is precisely the method I used; only that, in addition, my ground was then rolled. ^*

[Page 29] ONE of my neighbours intending to sow wheat on clover, ploughed up the clover a week or two before seeding time, and then gave it a second ploughing, a-cross, and sowed wheat on it; but whether this was ploughed in or harrowed in, I know not. Vast numbers of roots of the clover were left standing erect above ground, all over the field, and had a disagreeable appearance. Here was some unnecessary labour, a useless and even an injurious ploughing, whereby the manure from those substantial roots and a part of the green herbage, so turned out by the second ploughing, was lost to the crop.

ANOTHER neighbour sowed wheat on clover, with an intention not only to experience that method of cropping, but also to discover the dif­ference between the produce of wheat sown on clover pastured, and on clover mowed. In both he obtained great satisfaction. His operations were [Page 30] less confined than mine, which were meant to be few and as simple as might be.

• HE 1. Ploughed in the clover, deep.
• 2. Harrowed.
• 3. Rolled.
• 4. Sowed wheat.
• 5. Ploughed it in, shallow.
• 6. Harrowed it, in the same direction.

HALF of the wheat, so seeded, was on the clover ground which had been twice mowed and the clover made into hay; the other half, on what had been pastured through the summer. The operations of seeding were at the same time, and in the same manner. The produce from that twice mowed was [...] by the acre, to that pastured.—So injurious is the tread of beasts in pasturing, more than any good derived to the soil from scattered dung, here and there dropt and exposed to utter exhaustion by the sun and wind.

SUBMITTING these facts to the consideration of farmers, I have only to recommend, that they endeavour to have their clover grow sufficiently thick on the ground, and that it be suffered to remain only one summer, exclusive of the year when the preceding crop of grain was reaped, and upon which grain-field the clover seed was sown.

OF FARM-YARD MANURE.

To conduct the business of a farm to full ad­vantage, we must excercise our reasoning facul­ties, and build up principles which systemati­cally embrace such a regular course of particulars as will best follow and depend on each other for obtaining the one whole of the design of farming. It is not immediate product alone that we aim at: for, whilst we wish to obtain repeated full crops, our reason assures us it is indispensably necessary to that end, that the soil be preserved in full vigor. The mind then is employed, principally, on the objects of preservation and improvement of the productive powers of the earth. Observations on the state of common farming fix the opinion, that in general no unconnected, random pursuits tend to ensure a succession of advantageous hus­bandry for any length of time.

WELL chosen rotations of crops together with due culture, are believed to be so favour­able to the ground, as to need but little addition of manure, in comparison of what the common random crops absolutely demand. Still the appli­cation of manures is held to be an essential branch of farming, a great link of the chain, in every instance. If very rich soils require, comparatively, but a moderate quantity, in a [Page 32] rotation, where ameliorating crops are prevalent, yet middling and poor soils want all that can be obtained; and, under the old courses, all soils eagerly demand more manure than can be procured. These exhausting courses, we see, are continually impoverishing our farms. Too many farmers, therefore, incline to move to fresh lands; where they would precisely act the same murderous part over again.

THE two principal links in good farming, are proper Rotations of Crops, which are treated of above; and Manures, of which it is wished the occasion would admit of more than the few ob­servations that follow.

"IN the American practice, bay and fodder are stacked in the fields; and the cattle are fed round the stacks and fodder houses: the disadvantages whereof are,

1. A wasteful use of the provender;

2. THE dung lying as it dropped without straw, or other vegetable substance brought to it, the manure is little in quantity; and

3. THAT little not lying in heaps, is reduced abundantly by exhalation and rain; leaving scarce any thing to the soil.

IN the English and Flemish practice (feebly observed by a few of our husbandmen) cattle are carefully housed, or otherwise confined to a fold­yard [Page 33] (straw yard) in which are shelters against cold rains, during the whole winter, and as far through the spring as food will last: the advan­tages of which are,

1. A fair expenditure of the provender, with­out waste:

2. Less exhaustion of the juices; because of the dung lying together in large heaps:

3. The dung being mixed with the straw, and other vegetable substances brought to the beasts as litter, the whole is trod together, and forms a large quantity of very valuable manure.

IT may be no exaggeration to affirm, that the difference in the quantities of manure obtained from an equal stock of cattle by these several methods, may be as three to one. If six acres may be annually manured by the inferior method, then may eighteen by the superior. Now on a supposition that manured land is kept in heart five years without repeating, in the one case but thirty acres will always remain in good order; in the other ninety acres: A very important difference! Indeed it is all the difference between an hus­bandman's poverty and his riches." ^*

[Page 34] Do cattle, when foddered round hay-stacks and fodder-houses or ricks, give twelve large loads of manure (forty heaped bushels) each? do they yield one such load? It is an established fact that, in the course of a winter, cattle do yield full twelve such loads; and if soiled or fed well, during the summer, with green cut grass or clover, they may be expected to yield more and richer manure; provided that in both cases they are kept up, on a full quantity of litter. Here, by the way, it may be noted that a lot of grass only sufficient to keep one beast in pasturing, has suffi­ced five or six in soiling: and what is of im­mense importance to the state of the ground and of future crops, the ground being untrod, is left light and mellow. Another favourable circum­stance attends this method: the beasts are kept in shade, and considerably protected from flies, especially if the house be kept dark during the [Page 35] heat of the day, with only air-holes near the ground and above their heads. But it will be said, the ground round the stacks receives the dung dropt, as a dressing to so much of the field. Alas! we know this extends to a very small di­stance, and even then the effects are in no part considerable. The place where, is some eminences the rains and winds of half the year wash away or evaporate from the frozen ground most of the rich substance of the winter's [...] dung so dropt about; and the ground is, when unfrozen, during all that time, trod down and poached, to a degree that nearly destroys the benefit remaining from the dung dropt. A fodder house (a hollow rick, made of maiz tops in the way of thatch) was set up in a field, as is usual; it was fenced in: at the south front of it the maiz was husked, and the husks were sheltered in the fodder-house; they were fed out in the course of the winter to cattle in front of the rick; in April, the rick or fodderhouse, being then empty, was pulled down, and the covering given to the cattle. The soil thus sheltered by the fodderhouse for six months (October to April) shewed marks of rich­ness, greatly superior to the ground on which the cattle [...] soddered during the same time: Grass, weeds and crops, during the four or five following years, shewed this in their great growth: [Page 36] where the fodderhouse, 300 feet in length and 20 in breadth, stood and sheltered the ground, the richness of the soil was strongly marked, when but a faint superiority, over the common field, appeared where the cattle were fed.

Litter is an essential, without which farm-yard manure is of no account; and unless it be in full proportion to the number of cattle, it is not thought highly of—but is as a half done thing. Good farmers in England deem full littering of such importance, that after reaping with sickles and inning their wheat, they chop the stubble with sithes, and stack it for litter, for their live stock. Besides the straw and stubble for litter, they apply to the same use, fern and such other vegetable sub­stances as they can procure; and they buy straw from common farmers who are not in the practice. In all countries, most farmers are careless of im­provement: they look not beyond their old habits.

THE like materials may be so applied in America—straw, stubble, maiz stalks, fern, weeds before they seed, flags, wild oats, sea grass, leaves of trees, &c. Our farmers say, "there is no manure in corn-stalks;" ^* and they leave them standing in their fields. I have been used to draw them into my fold-yard, in the fall and during the [Page 37] winter; where they were laid thick, as litter to grown cattle, and were soon trod into a sponge­like state; in which condition they catch and retain the dung and urine of the cattle, so as to give a great quantity of manure, uncommonly rich.

IN November, all the cattle are to be confined from wandering about the fields. The fold yard is then well littered; and as often as the litter is trod into the dung or is soaking wet, more litter is added; so that the beasts may always lay clean and dry. They are thus confined and littered till there is a full bite of grass in May. All the cattle that can, are to be under shelter from cold rains during that time. It is an indispensable measure that all horses and young cattle be so sheltered. Litter is to be given them as above.

‘IN many situations, says Mr. Young, the dependance of a farm for manure, is on the straw yard. If in that case the farmer does not properly proportion his arable crops which feed cattle, to those which litter the yard; and both these to the quantity of his grass fields, the farm will be long before it gets well manured.’

A DESIGN, for a Farm containing 146 Acres of rich Land.

THIS farm was shewn me lately, by the worthy proprietor; it may contain 160 acres or more, [Page 38] but the least possible quantity is assumed for the present purpose; the soil is the first rate hazel­loam, of a quality to yield, in the greatest per­fection, every article of land-produce, suitable to the climate: the whole is in condition for meadow, and about 40 acres are too low to be depended on, in a rotation where barley or wheat are a part. At present it is in the occupation of a tenant.

TWENTY-FOUR bushsels of wheat, medium between 18 and 30, may be expected from a soil so excellent, and which last year yielded 30: the barley in proportion—beans are more pre­carious in their yield, therefore only 10 bushels are allowed.

[Page 39]

THE beans, following clover, are drilled on one deep ploughing in June. The barley is sown in October, on one ploughing, the ground having been left clean and mellow after inning the beans. The wheat is sown in September on one plowing of the clover. What a saving of work! Three crops on only one ploughing for each, and per­formed at leisure! The beans are ploughed for in June; the wheat in September; the barley in October, or if preferred, in March. One of the crops is horsehoed or shimmed, without any inter­ference with the ploughings or other work in seeding the wheat or barley. The clover, which is to be ploughed up for beans, may be pastured, [Page 40] occasionally and cautiously, till June: or it may be kept up and mowed for hay: this may be especially advantageous on farms deficient in meadow; as there will then be the two clover­fields for summer grass to the stock; and more­over the ground of that mown, will be preserved in a light and mellow state, to receive the bean seed on the one ploughing.

ONE of the fields annually manured with 20 loads (40 heaped bushels each) of farm-yard dung, will take 400 loads: which may be more efficacious, to this rich soil, than 30 loads an acre to common land. A full littering is 3 loads of 12 or 1300 [...] of straw to each grown beast. The whole quan­tity of straw to 43 beasts is 130 loads. The straw of 40 acres of wheat and barley, will fall far short of this. The deficiency is to be otherwise sup­plied. In the best farming counties of England, straw is sold by farmers who are tenants on short leases, or who adhering to old-sameness, jog on as their fathers and as themselves were trained, and from which they annot deviate. It is presumed that here also straw is to be bought: maiz stalks will be cheap—for a long while they will cost little else than carriage. A skeleton frame, of light wood, may be contrived to carry a vast quantity when they are dry: but whilst yet un­cured they may be better, because of their sweet [Page 41] juice which induces cattle to brouse on them as they lay under foot in the yard: When they are well trodden, they become of a sponge-like consistence, which retains the dung and the urine very effectually. Let us not be sparing of expence, or be dilatory in procuring the necessary materials for a full lit­tering: It increases and preserves the manure ne­cessary for the improvement of our land, and en­hances its value, as it enables it to yield greater crops and more of pecuniary income: yet this gain is not stated in the above account of income.

IT is advantageous to a farm, and of some im­mediate income, to have on it as numerous a stock of cattle as can be kept well, and no more than can be so kept: It is better to have too few than too many: Yet, in parts of America, farmers ex­ceedingly disproportion their cattle to their pro­vender—they will have numbers of hidebound creatures, of which more die from the mere want of food and shelter, than are sold or eaten: So that less meat and less manure are derived from a great number so poorly kept, than other farmers have from a due proportion in a smaller number well kept. Besides, does not the man feel shame in the cruelty of starving and keeping in a state of want and misery, a fellow-creature committed to his care? Is it not a trust to the creature man, from the Father of all creatures?

[Page 42] THE live stock for this farm, may be supposed to consist of,

• 6 calves 18=10—that is, 18 young cat­tle are equal to 10 aged, in the expence of food.
• 6 yearlings 18=10—that is, 18 young cat­tle are equal to 10 aged, in the expence of food.
• 6 in 3d. year 18=10—that is, 18 young cat­tle are equal to 10 aged, in the expence of food.
• 18

• 6 oxen 6
• 1 bull 1
• 20 cows 20
• 45 young and old = 37 aged cattle
• 6 horses 6 horses ^*
• 51 head, young and [...] 43 aged beasts.

THE live stock is to be as many as can be kept sheltered from cold rains, and with abun­dant winter and summer food. Of all the kinds, the norse is the most costly and the most injurious to the farm: He bites close, is almost continu­ally treading and poaching the ground, and eats more than the ox as 5 to 3; yet is not, himself, [Page 43] eatable: When he dies, he is lost for ever. The ox is meat: After having given us his labour, he becomes a part of ourselves; we have the va­lue of him for ever in us. Steers are unprofit­able: They cost 6 or 7 years keeping, without yielding labour; and are then sold for less than the cost of keeping and fattening them. ^* Sheep are profitable: but are not here in the design, because they are totally discarded by the farmers of this neighbourhood; and there are circumstan­ces which more particularly affect this than other parts of the country, respecting them. Sows and pigs, if not also hogs, ought to be kept where there is a dairy, as they make a considerable part of its profit, from the offal milk. Hogs are pro­fitably kept on green clover, and fattened on po­tatoes and corn.

THE quantity of land, alone, is no rule for determining the number of cattle or other live stock: Not only the quantity and quality, but also the situation and the crops will affect the question: and the attentive farmer will determine from his experience, how far he is to enlarge or reduce the number of his live stock.

[Page 44] Another course of crops for this farm may be;

THE little of maiz that may be wanted, can be bought: or, if it be the choice, the 17 acres of rye may be in maiz-crop.

IN the 6 fields, the quantity of clover is less than in the 5 fields, as 34 to 40: but the grain is more, as 153 to 132; and in value, as 1093 to 1028 dollars.

CATTLE STALLS.

ON this particular I only give what I have collected of Mr. Bakewell's method of housing his cattle, from the Annals of Agriculture; or from John Burnei, who was sent to America by Mr. Bakewell, four years since.

Mr. Bakewell keeps his cattle in houses: A passage is at the head of the cattle, to feed from: The troughs out of which they eat their hay or turnips (I suppose too their straw, for he feeds [Page 45] largely with straw) are 2½ feet wide at top, and slope to the bottom which is of brick; 3 feet long; 8 or 9 inches deep: The bottom of brick is on the ground: No rack: Every stall is 6 feet wide, for two cows; 8 for 2 bulls: In each cor­ner of the stalls is a smooth post with a ring larger than the post, for sliding easily up and down: A chain, not a foot long, connects with the ring, and also with a chain collar round the beast's neck, which locks with a T: The cattle can but just reach their food next to the division between the two beasts. Three feet for each cow, is better than more room: In this they lay down: More space would admit of their dirtying each the other: Their standing is 6 feet; and behind is a step 5 or 6 inches down to where the dung falls. The house is cleaned once a day; and the cattle are driven twice to water. He has 45 in one place, so tied up; and they are fed and taken care of by one man and one boy.

Cows in milk are not to want water. In this climate, they ought to be watered three times a day. Their water ought to be near; as driving cows any distance, is very injurious to their milk. In page 39, 200lbs of butter are allowed to each cow on this fine farm. In England, dairy cows are allowed to give from 200 to 400lbs.

[Page 46] WHILST the present little work is at press, I have again visited this farm. The tenant, after inning his wheat crop, has mowed and secured the stubble: the motives whereof were to preserve his young clover, which was sown on the wheat last spring, from being smothered by the rank stubble, and to use the stubble as litter to his beasts; of which he has thirty that by November may weigh 800lbs. each. ^* This is the first instance that I have known of stubble being cut in America, with any view to littering cattle! He thinks that had it not been for a stroke of rust, he should have reaped 35 bushels of wheat an acre: as it is, he expects near 30 bushels. This farmer has here given an important lesson, for those who are disposed to second their judgment with de­termined exertion! ^†