On Air.

IT is enough for our purpose here, to say, that air in mo­tion which moves ships, is a fluid body, as much as the water they swim in: this is proved from many experiments, and may be perceived from what we see ordained by the ALL GREAT AUTHOR of nature, in birds, insects, and all animals that fly; they float or swim, steer and govern their directions through the air by their wings and tails, upon the same principles, that fish swim in the water. And air is proved by experiment to have its weight in air of about seventeen grains to a quart, near the surface of the sea, as a quart vessel when the air is pumped out by an air-pump, weighs about seventeen grains less than when the air is in it; but the air weighs less and less in pro­portion, as it is higher above the surface of the sea: and its property is to buoy up or raise any matter that is lighter than itself, bulk for bulk, as may be seen by smoke, steam, or va­pors, rising up to certain heights, till they come to air that is of the same weight with themselves, where they float and make mists, fogs, or clouds, which darken the sky, and hinder us from seeing any considerable distance about us, till they are dis­persed or separated, or fall in rain, or snow, &c.

Confined air in ships deserves particular notice; it often occa­sions diseases, and sometimes immediate death, as has frequent­ly been the case in the pump-wells of ships of war: charcoal fires, &c. in close places, are dangerous, and sometimes [...]; too many people together in close places, silth and dirt made, [Page 2] and suffered to continue below, foul the air, therefore every seaman that does not know it, should be told, that by his [...]m­mon breathing, he fouls a gallon of air▪ and requires a p [...]lon of fresh air to breath in every minute; so that for the pre­servation of themselves, they should not grudge, nor think much to keep the places where they rest, as clear and clean as things will admit of; and use every method possible to keep ships clear of bad air, which becomes proportionably heavier as it becomes more foul, and losing its circulating property, it naturally descends to, and stagnates in the lowest vacancies, where it hastens to corruption every thing that is subject to de­cay, even the ship and her materials, and much more so the provisions, which must consequently make unhealthy ships.

When foul air in ships proceeds from their being crowded with people below, which may prove very fatal: to prevent the bad effects of its lying in a ship, I would recommend to keep the pumps constantly working though no water in the ship, till a lighted candle will burn clear in the bottom of the pump-well, where the worst air lodges, as being the lowest and greatest vacancy in the ship's holds; and all water-pumps will act the part of air-pumps, or ventilators, it is well known that the water would not rise to the sucking-pumps, if the air was not first pumped out of them. From Guinea ships, whose large close fire furnaces, whilst the slaves are on board, stand near their pump-wells, it would be easy to expel the foul air, by the following contrivance. Let an iron nozel be fixed in the side of the furnace, of about four inches bore, and let one end of a copper pipe be inserted into it, and the other end into a lead or wooden pipe, which might by various means be carried down into the pump-well, this would serve as a ventilator; and as their fires for cooking are made just after midnight, when the slaves are all below, its operation would then be most beneficial. It is known from experience in ships of war, where such pipes are used, that whilst the fire burns, by its rarefaction, it will draw up and expel a constant flow of air from the pump-well; so that by this means the lowest and foulest air may be got out of ships, and the fresh air will naturally circulate and take its place. The power of the air's pressure on all bodies near the surface of the sea, is computed to be about fifteen pounds weight to every square inch; it presses every way in all direc­tions, [Page 3] not only downwards, but slanting, sideways, and up­wards, as may be proved without any other machines for that purpose, by those little round leather suckers (as they are called) [...] by boys at play. These, when wet, and clapped upon [...]ooth stones, press the air from between the stone and sucker, [...] by hauling upon the string in the middle, a small vacuum, [...] little hollow space void of air, is formed, and then the air's pressure upwards under the stones opposite to the vacuum, is [...] reason why the stones may be lifted up.

The pressure of the air downwards is known and experienced [...] many cases, and its bad effects are felt upon ships sometimes when they take out a raft-port, which they think high enough out of the water when the ship is afloat; but if she after that grounds, by the tide leaving her upon mud, so as to press the water from under part of the bottom, the air's pressure down­wards against that part in the mud, where there is neither air nor water, will confine the ship from rising out of the mud, till the water flows much above her floating mark; and the water may run in at the raft-port and sink her. And in small vessels which are deep laden, and lie aground upon mud, and especially if their bottoms are flat, such as a great number of vessels are which carry goods up and down rivers, when deeply loaden the masters dread, and avoid as much as they can, lay­ing them in the mud, on account of its suction, as it is com­monly called and thought to be, but is entirely owing to the air's pressure downwards, acting upon the parts where the air and water are pressed from under them, that their vessels are in danger of sinking, before they can rise or float out of the mud, and which sometimes pulls pieces of sheathing off ships bot­toms, from the same cause, when the water gets between the bottom and the sheathing, and none between that and the mud: the same cause will keep wood or any other thing that will swim, and is lighter than water, from rising; for if their buoyan­cy don't lift them before the water flows upon them, the weigh: and pressure of the water is then added to the air's pressure downwards to prevent their rising.

What is commonly called suction is caused by the pressure of the air, which forces and raises the water upwards, in com­mon sucking-pumps, as they are called, where the working of the boxes and clappers only pump up the air first and takes off [Page 4] its pressure downwards from the inside of the bore of the pump, when the air pressing upon the water in the well, will make it rise to the height of thirty-three feet above its level, up a pump or pipe, where the power of the air is taken off; and quicksilver, that is fourteen times the weight of water, will rise to about thirty-one inches in a tube or glass pipe, void of air: and these prove a balance, equal to the pressure of our air or atmos­phere; and which air, when it is most dense or in its heaviest state, will very seldom raise these fluids higher. Weather-glasses are sometimes used, though with very little success, in pointing out approaching storms; there has been some few instances of a storm's being foretold by them, to the preserva­tion of the vessels and crews: as they may sometimes be of ser­vice, and cannot possibly be of prejudice, it would be prudent to have them on board.

On Wind.

WIND may be said to be only the air moving over the sur­face of our globe, from one place where it is heavier, toward another place where it is lighter, which difference occasions its different directions; and the swiftness of its motion is in pro­portion to the different densities of the air in different places, as PROVIDENCE has pleased to order it for many valuable pur­poses.

We call it calm, when the air is without motion; but when the air moves, we call it wind; and its power is calculated to increase, in proportion to the square of the velocity or swift­ness with which it flies, which is at the rate of sixty miles an hour in one of the greatest storms of our climate, which hath been proved by experiments; for the air, though at rest, will act on any body put in motion, in proportion to the swiftness of that body.

Suppose a ship launched in a calm to gain a velocity or run at the rate of a mile a minute, at this time the ship will feel the same effect from this calm, as one of our greatest storms of a mile in a minute or sixty miles in an hour, would have upon her stern, when she was fast on the stocks; and a ship launched with the same velocity, and in the same direction with the wind in a storm, would feel it calm for the time she run as fast [Page 5] as the wind blowed, as may be noticed, when ships are [...]ched with a brisk wind, their colours blowing aft, the [...] way they are to run: when they come to a quick [...]tion in launching, their colors fly fored for that time. [...] when any body is put into so quick a motion through the [...] as not to give the air time to close behind it, in that case [...]akes in some degree a vacuum, and in proportion to this [...] will not only be the resistance, but the pressure of [...]air, acting upon these bodies, which may be near fifteen [...]nds upon every square inch; and this is the occasion why [...] masts and yards, sometimes are rolled away in a calm, [...] they are put into a very quick motion, by a laborsome [...] rolling. A ship under way in a calm, where there is a [...] tide or current, will be affected as if a light air or gen­ [...] wind was right against and in proportion to the strength of [...] current or tide. As the wind happens to blow with or [...] the tide, a ship will feel less or more wind in propor­ [...] to the rate of the tide. Wind in many instances is alter­ [...]om its natural direction, as in a narrow river, that has high [...], or high trees close to the water, on each side, there the [...] commonly blows either right up or down the river. When [...] wind blows right across a river, or right off any high land; [...] [...]hen ships are close under high land, when it blows strong, [...] often feel such gusts of eddy winds in all directions, that [...] pendants are sometimes seen to be blown right up in the [...] in such situations they can't trim their square-sails fast [...] to any advantage, therefore it is best to have the [...]-sails close furled; and if any sails can be of advantage, [...] be the stay-sails, mizen, boom-sails, try-sails, and such [...] as may be worked without laying so long aback as to [...] the ship stern way. A ship sailing close by the wind, one [...]cle or part of [...] drives off another from the lee or after­ [...] of the sail, which turns the wind from its direction for a [...] time, as may be noticed, by a ship's after-sails being obli­ [...] be trimmed sharper than her head-sails, and her ensign [...] lying above three points to leeward, when the ship is sail­ [...] [...]ear six points from the wind. When ships are sailing [...]ering, or before the wind, the wind then blows perpendi­cular to, or right upon the sails, which makes them bag more, [...]rm a hollow, so that the wind, when it blows strong, may [Page 6] compress the air in the belly of the sail, into less compass than its natural state; for air, contrary to all other fluids, has that property, that it may be compressed into very small space, a [...] is known by charging of wind-guns, &c.

On Water.

WATER on the surface is powerfully acted upon by the wind, and by that according to its strength, which forces the water from its natural level, which it always endeavors to come to, but is prevented and disturbed by several causes act­ing upon it: when the water is in motion by a strong tide and the wind blows strong against it, it makes the most dan­gerous and troublesome waves. High waves at sea are suppo­sed to move along at the rate of about twenty miles in an hour.

On Hanging of Ships Rudders.

SOME ships have been lost by having their rudders beaten off in striking upon the ground, which may be prevented [...] having bands upon the rudder the same that are in common up­on the stern-posts, with a long iron spindle, to go through th [...] eyes of all the bands, and which will permit the rudder [...] rise and fall about twenty inches as the ship strikes: from [...] good effects found by those who have try'd this method, I thi [...] it ought to be more practised, especially by the coasting ves­sels, that go so much among shoals and rocks.

On Hawse-Holes.

THE many disadvantages attending hawse-holes being to small, makes me mention here, that it is absolutely necessary that all hawse-holes should be made big enough at first, to adm [...] the ship's cables when spliced with a short splice, to go thr [...] free and easy.

On Masts and Yards.

I PROFESS myself an advocate for tall masts and sho [...] yards, it has been sufficiently proved by experience that ship will sail much faster on the wind with short, than with [...] [Page 7] yards; they will be much lighter alost, of less expence when [...] fitted out, and may be worked with fewer hands. All [...]asts made of crooked poles should be made to stand with the [...] aft, that is with the projecting or crooked end forwards, [...]hich will make them stand upright without that great stress upon the stays, that has to act against all the other rigging, to event the masts heads from raking too much aft, which is commonly the case. The method now practised of having few [...]ocks, and little top hamper aloft, for ease and neatness, is certainly right, and should be pursued as far as it can with [...]fety; but I would advise not to carry this fashion to an ex­treme, by having too many sheave-holes cut in the mast heads; [...] I have known many top-masts break in the place of the [...]ave-holes, under the rigging. Top-gallant-masts going up [...] down abaft the topmasts, have been found from experience [...] answer many good purposes in a cruising ship, and a great advantage to a ship that has much to turn to windward, as they [...]ay be struck, and kept close struck occasionally, with the [...]ole top-sails a trip.

On Ships Sails.

THE square-sails, suitable to taunt masts and short yards, [...] [...]here recommended, will be in proportion, deep and narrow, [...] [...]ich will trim and stand much fairer upon a wind, than if [...] were shallow and broader; and if the ship's employ re­quires it, will admit of larger stay-sails, such stay-sails as are [...] made with judgment, not to hoist too high at the back of [...] square-sails, to shake the wind out of them, but which per­ [...]ts all the sails to stand to great advantage, clear of each other. [...] endeavor to make a ship sail by the wind and turn well to windward, deserves the greatest regard, because safety, as well [...] many other great benefits, depend upon it. The good ef­fects of deep and narrow square-sails can't be better recom­mended to answer this purpose, than by the performance of [...]ips in the coal and timber trades to London; tho' the design­ [...] properties in building and fitting these ships are burden, at a [...]all draft of water, to take and bear the ground well, and to [...]il with few hands, and little ballast; yet these ships perform so [...]ell at sea that the government often makes choice of them [Page 8] for store-ships, in the most distant naval expeditions; in narrow channels among shoals, and turning to windward in narrow rivers, no ships of equal burthen can match them, which I attribute a great deal to their deep narrow square-sails, which may be perceived to trim so flat and fair, upon a wind, that all the canvas stands full at a proper angle from the directions of the keel, so that the wind goes freely off from the lee-leach of these sails, without being much altered in its di­rection from one sail to the back of the next, which is not the case, when a ship's square-sails are so broad as to overlap each other, one sail then shakes the next to it, and they extend so far to leeward, that the lee-sheets make the after part of the canvas or lee-leaches, stand rather as so much back sail, to stop the ship's way, or only to press the ship's side down to leeward, which is the effect of all the canvas in a ship's sails, when it does not stand at a proper angle with the direction of the keel, when a ship is sailing close by the wind. Where a deal of canvas is wanting to sail fast large, the narrow deep square-sails, have in height what they want in breadth; and all the flying sails, including the top-gallant-sails as such, being all of lighter canvas, may be made as large as things will ad­mit of, to answer this purpose in little winds; and when it comes to blow so strong, that these flying sails can't be carried, then the standing square-sails will be found broad enough.

The yards of a frigate-built ship were shortened so much, and the main-sail made so narrow in proportion, that the main-tack was hauled down through iron-bound blocks, which hooked in eye-bolts within board, fixed for that purpose, and which made the sail to stand much better, and work much ea­sier than when at the chestree without board. The fore-tacks of all ships should be made to stand by bumpkins or at the catheads, as far to windward as the main-tacks, which will make the fore-sails to stand as near or nearer the wind, than the main-sail will, when trimmed at the same angle, for the same reasons a collier's fore-top-sail stands upon a wind without a bowline, as the wind acts upon the head sails, without being turned more aft from one sail to another abaft it. A ship's main-sail and fore-sail, with top-sails and top-gallant-sails a­bove them trimmed, when turning to windward with a light breeze, stands at three points of the compass, which is about [Page 9] half the angle the ship stems from the direction of the wind, which is six points upon each tack, but the crossjack yard re­quires to be braced up at the same time to two points, and the mizen-top-sail-yard to a point and an half, so that the plane or [...]ody of the mizen-top-sail stand at a point and three quarters or nineteen degrees; the mizen should stand at a point and an half [...] seventeen degrees▪ and the stay-sails between the masts will [...]nd at the same angle of seventeen degrees when drawing full [...] by the wind.

A sloop will stem at five points of the compass from the direc­tion of the wind, her main-sail, fore-sail and jib then standing at half that angle or two points and an half from the direction of [...] wind upon each tack.

In ships designed to carry many sails in light winds it has been [...]und by experience that a ship can turn to windward with thir­ [...] effectual sails set in a plain and simple manner: besides two [...], which are known to stand very well upon a wind, there was [...] fore-stay-sail which stood very well by the fore-mast standing [...]ell aft, and the fore-tack well to windward, as before recom­mended; and by having two sheaves in each truck at long top-gallant-mast heads, the top-gallant-royals were hoisted up to [...] trucks by sheaves on one side, and the main and mizen spin­ [...]e stay-sails by the sheaves on the other side of the trucks, at [...] main and mizen-top-gallant-mast heads; a gaff top-sail was [...] with a light yard slung by thirds and hoisted up through [...] [...]ock at the after part of the cap at the mizen-top-mast, the [...]ck hauled down on the weather side to the after corner of the mizen-top, and the sheet to the gaff end; this sail was easier ma­ [...]ged and stood to more advantage than when set with a cum­ [...]rsome heavy gaff rigged at the mizen-top-mast head for that [...]urpose; a large driver was set with a light pole for a boom with [...] tail blocks at the outer end, which was run out aft on either [...]de, and lashed to the rail, so that the blocks on the outer end [...]od right aft, facing the middle of the stern upon either tack▪ [...] driver slung by the third of the yard like a lug-sail, hoisted within about four feet of the end of the mizen-gaff, which [...] as three feet longer than the mizen required, on account of this sail; the tack hauled down to the weather quarter-piece [...] either tack, and the sheet to a block a midships with a bow­ [...]ne hauled to the mizen-mast, which made the sail set fair up­on [Page 10] a wind, at an angle of about a point and half or sixteen de­grees from the direction of the keel; a fore-top-mast studding-sail was set for a water-sail, the yard slung by the third, hauled out to the other tail-block at the boom end, with the straight leach or sheet-clew uppermost, and made fast to the weather corner of the stern rail, and the lower clew had two sheets or lines led into the aftermost scupper in the waist on each side, so that in tacking when the wind was near a-head, the fore part of these sails were shifted to the weather side, which trimmed them ready for the other tack, by which they prevented the ship from falling too much off, and had a good effect upon her sailing in a light breeze of wind; but when it came to blow fresh, the wind reflected from the mizen shook the driver so much that it was taken in when sailing close by the wind, and the boom when rigged in lay snug fore and aft on one side, stopped to the rail and was much more out of the way than a cumbersome heavy yard, which is often used for a driver-boom, and which lying across is inconvenient and holds wind when the ship is sailing close hauled, and can only serve to set the sail to advantage when sailing with the wind quartering, or before it.

In sailing any from the wind to right before it, the light dri­ver-boom is easily shifted to different parts of the stern, and by the heel-ropes at the heaviest end within board, trim it as the wind required so as to make the driver and water-sail stand as fair and as far or farther out from the ship than could be done by a yard across for a boom, as above mentioned.

Top-gallant studding-sails were set without troublesome and cumbersome booms on the top-sail-yards, by having thimbles fixed at the outer end of the top-mast studding-sail yards, the tacks were kept reeved and both ends made fast to the inner yard-arm, so that they could be come at from the top-sail yard-arm, to bend the tack and haule it out, which spread the sails and made them stand very well; the inner yard-arm of the top-mast studding-sail was stopped with the outer gasket of the top-sail yard-arm, when the sail was set abaft the top-sail, to pre­vent the outer yard-arm from flying forward.

Some ships will bear and carry sail so as to get to windward and keep clear of a lee shore, as long as canvas will stand; in such a case safety must often depend upon the strength of the sails, therefore the method of making them should give all the [Page 11] strength that can be given to prevent their splitting in time of danger. It would contribute greatly to make canvas stand a storm, and wear much longer if the sails were made with ro­bin, gromet, and point-holes. In the middle of every [...]am, and about half an inch lower down in the sail than those holes which are found necessary to be between the seams, and which fall in the single part of the canvas; by this method the greatest strain will be upon the seams, which are the strongest parts of the sail, and will bear a greater stress than they will by the common practice of making all the above holes in the single part of the canvas clear of the seams, which is done as I suppose, to avoid cutting and sewing thro' so many sold of canvas, for there is now made about the same quantity of holes as I wish to recommend here, that is, a hole in each seam and one midway between; which is enough for any sail: and for the sail that reefs by the foot, a point-hole in each seam is found sufficient. The holes made in the single part of the canvas ought to be a little higher up in the sail, that the principal stress may be upon the seams; which I reckon is about three times as strong as the single part of the canvas. When the sails are seam-pricked, as all foul-weather sails ought to be, in a serpentine form, as soon as they are stretch­ed a little by wear, so that if the sails are not confined to the yards, stays, and gaffs, more by the seamed part of the sail than by the single canvas, the weight of the seams will contribute to split and wear out the single canvas much sooner, especially when the sails flap hard in gales of wind; or when obliged to carry sail in little wind with a great rolling sea. Instead of cutting these holes through so many folds of canvas at random with a knife, I take the liberty to recommend to have a round hollow tool or gouge with a mallet and a block upon the knees for the purpose of cutting the holes more regular.

On Rigging and Ropes.

WE should avoid all unnecessary rigging, as well as blocks, for every thing that the wind blows upon about a ship that doth not stand in the plane of direction with the sails, is a hindrance to the ship's sailing upon the wind; therefore the running rig­ging should not go double, where single will answer the purpose, those stays to the top-gallant-masts heads, and close network [Page 12] with bobs, which I have seen hanging under the fore-part of ships tops, are useless top-hamper; and crowfeet there in my opinion does more harm than good.

Where the jib-boom is to go through an upright cap at the bowsprit end (which is certainly the best way) the end of the bowsprit through the cap, should be left long enough for the collar of the fore-top-mast stay to lie under it, and spread on each side of the cap, which answers good purposes, in keeping the stay so much farther forward, in staying the mast better, a larger fore-top-mast stay-sail may be set to advantage, and the jib-boom go freely out and in, as occasion may require.

It would be best to have the top-sail yards, as well as the low­er yards, rigged to hoist with a double block with two straps upon the yard, to make the sheaves stand fore and aft; and a double block with a long double strap before the cross-trees, with a leading block at the mast head to go as geers instead of ties, which are constantly chaffing in the tie-block upon the yards, by the sheaves standing athwart the same way with the rolling motion of the ship, which makes the ties so often break; but by the above method as geers, the sheaves of the blocks standing fore and aft, prevent the chaffing by the ship's rolling motion. I am surprised to see continued in some ships, the old practice of having the mizen-top-sail braces and bowlines go across, when they do as well on the same side and give a clear opening to set a large mizen-top-mast stay-sail to great advantage.

On Stowing and Trimming a Ship.

A SHIP's sailing, steering, staying, and wearing, and being lively, and comparatively easy at sea in a storm, in my opinion depends greatly on the cargo, ballast, or other materials, being properly stowed, according to their weight and bulk, and the proportional dimensions of the ship, which may be made too crank, or too stiff, to pass through the ocean with safety; which makes this branch of knowledge of such consequence, that rules for it ought to be endeavoured after, if but to prevent as much as possible the danger of a ship's oversetting at sea, or being so laborsome as to roll away her masts, &c. by being improperly stowed, which is often the case. When a new ship is to be loaded [Page 13] is necessary to consult the builder, who may be supposed ac­quainted with the ship of his own constructing, and most likely [...] judge what her properties will be; to advise how her cargo [...] materials, according to the nature of them, ought to be dis­ [...]sed of to advantage, so as to put her in the best sailing trim; [...] I would recommend trials at every favorable opportunity [...]terwards, to find out, or to confirm which is the best trim for [...]ing; as experience is the best guide. Ships must differ in their form, and proportional dimensions, to make them answer their different purposes; they will require different manage­ment in stowage, which ought not to be left to meer chance, or [...] at random, as goods or materials happen to come to hand, which is often the cause that such improper stowage makes [...]ips unfit for sea; therefore the stowage should be considered, [...]anned, and contrived, according to the built and properties [...] the ship, and which if they are not known should be enquir­ [...] after; if she is narrow, and high built in proportion, so that [...] will not shift herself without a great weight in the hold, [...] is a certain sign that this ship will require a great part of [...]avy goods, ballast, or materials, laid low in the hold, to make [...] stiff enough to bear sufficient sail, without being in danger [...] oversetting. But a ship that is built broad and low in pro­portion; so that she is stiff and will support herself without any [...]ight in the hold, this ship will require heavy goods, ballast, [...] materials, stowed higher up, to prevent her being too stiff [...] laboursome at sea; so as to endanger her masts being roll­ [...] a way, and the hull worked loose and made leaky. When [...] ships of different properties meet with dangerous high [...]ves, then the extraordinary stiff ship will be so laboursome [...] a quick jerking deep rolling motion, as not only to endan­ [...] the loss of the sails, rigging, and masts, but the hull may [...] worked loose and made leaky by the same violent rolling [...]tion; when the crank ship in company at the same time, [...] be comparatively easy in rising and falling with the waves, [...]hout that destructive rolling motion; for when she is turn­ [...] upon one side, by the force of the wind and waves, her reco­very is so slow, that she receives little or no damage, when [...] stiff ship may be greatly distressed. In order to help ship's sailing, and to be lively and easy in her pitch­ [...] and sending motions, it should be contrived by the [Page 14] stowage, that the principal and weightiest part of the carg [...] or materials, should lie as near the main body of the ship, and as far from the extreme ends, fore and aft, as they will adm [...] of.

It should be considered, that the roomy parts of our ships length-ways, form a sweep or curve, near four times as long as they are broad; therefore, those roomy parts at, and above the water's edge, which are made by a full harpen, and broad tran­some, to support the ship steady, and keep her from plunging in­to the sea; as also the entrance and run of the ship, having little or no bearing body under, for the pressure of the water to sup­port them; therefore, should not be stowed with heavy good [...] or materials; but all the necessary vacancies, broken stowage or light goods, should be at these extreme ends fore and aft and in proportion, as they are kept lighter by the stowage, the ship will be more lively to rise and fall easy in great seas, and will contribute greatly to her working, and sailing, and to pre­serve her from straining and hogging; for which reason I thin [...] it a wrong practice to leave such a large vacancy in the mai [...] hatchway as is usual, to coil and work the cables in, which ought to be in the fore or after hatchway, that the principal weight may be more easily stowed in the main body of the ship above the flattest and lowest floorings, where the pressure of the water acts more to support it.

On getting a Ship under Way.

IT is supposed that the ship is now stowed and trimmed [...] the best advantage, and that every thing is ready for sea. If it [...] in a tide way, it should be a rule when the wind serves, to get under-way and sail against the flood, which gives time to get in the moorings, or the anchor up and stowed away at pleasure and the ship may be steered without danger in little roo [...] through a croud of ships, should any be in the way, or through narrow or shoal channels with a flowing tide, by which mean [...] many risks may be avoided. To prevent the difficulty▪ that of­ten happens in getting the anchor up, when it blows fresh with [...] windward tide, when the tide first sets, or makes right to wind­ward, you should heave in the cable as it slacks, until the an­chor is apeek, before the ship swings end on to the tide, to [Page 15] bring the wind aft, that may keep the ship a-head of the anchor [...]th the cable so tight under the bows and bottom, that it can­ [...]t be hove in without breaking the ship's sheer by putting the [...] hard over, first one way, and then the other; this slacks [...] cable so that it may be hove in briskly for the time the ship [...]eers broadside to the tide, from one side of the anchor to the [...]her: but the ship is liable to get so much headway, in time of [...]eering, that makes her bring up with so powerful and sud­ [...]n a jerk that many cables have been broke by this prac­tice.

On getting under Way with a Lee Tide.

IF you are under the necessity of getting under way with the [...]nd and tide in the same direction, and ships or shoals lie [...] right a stern dangerously in the way you are to go, in such situation or in any other that happens to be dangerous, I [...]uld recommend, where time will admit of it, to call every [...]able officer to look about with attention where the danger [...], to consider and consult what is best to be done, and what [...] be expected for the ship to do on the occasion, and especi­ally if there be but little wind; suppose it to blow at the rate of [...] miles an hour, which at anchor will seem a commanding [...]eze; but it should be considered, that if the tide runs at [...] miles an hour, when the ship is under way she will lose [...] half of the wind's power, that may hinder her from perform­ [...] what may be expected from the most dexterous manage­ment: and after their opinions are heard, the intended method proceeding should be made known, that none thro' ignorance [...] hinder, but that all may know how to help to put the design [...] practice, whether the ship is to be shot a-head, or backed [...]ern of the danger: this might contribute greatly to prevent [...] or the damage that is often done by weighing the anchor [...] proceeding without thought of the difficulties that often [...]nd getting a ship safely under way, in narrow or crowded [...], and making a stern-board is frequently necessary, and best management depends so much on the right ordering [...] helm, the effects of which on these occasions I shall en­ [...]r to explain.

On the Helm.

WHAT we call the helm is the tiller that turns the rudder on either side of the after part of the keel and stern-post, for the water to act on, as the management of the ship may re­quire: and as ships differ in breadth abaft, so should the tiller i [...] its length; that is, the tiller should be just long enough to reac [...] close over to each side when the rudder stands at an angle 33 degrees or bears three points of the compass from the direc­tion of the keel, which is generally allowed to be the best; to make the rudder go more over, is found from experience increase the resistance of the ship's way, which lessens the po [...] of the rudder to steer and manage the ship in proportion as [...] loses her way thro' the water▪ yet in boats and larger vesse [...] where the rudder and tiller admit of it, I have seen people [...] stupid, as to put the helm in tacking, almost right athwart th [...] stern, which tends more to stop the vessel's way, than to bring her head round against the wind and waves, from one tack [...] the other. This shews how necessary it is as far as possible, [...] have things fixed by the best rules, to prevent such bad prac­tice. Moving the helm can have no effect to manage a shi [...] but when she passes thro' the water, or the water passes by [...] in a tide or current's way, when water gives equal power to th [...] helm, as if the ship went at that rate thro' the water. When the helm is a midships, the rudder can have no effect, to turn the ship either way as it then stands in the same direction with the keel and stern-posts; but suppose the helm put to starboard it turns the rudder towards the larboard side of the ship, which makes the larboard side of the rudder to resist the water which act with a power according to its velocity, or the ship's head way thro' the water against the larboard side of the rudder to turn th [...] ship's stern to starboard, and consequently her head to port; [...] may be easily perceived that the contrary movements will pro­duce opposite effects.

On the Helm when a Ship has Stern Way.

THIS deserves particular notice, because the most masterly management depends on it, on very important occasions, [...] will appear hereafter. When a ship gets stern-way thro' the [Page 17] water, the helm has just the contrary effect upon the ship to what [...] has when she has head-way. Suppose a ship at a single anchor, [...] wind and tide in the same direction, and ships or shoals [...]ing near right a-stern in the way you must go, and to keep [...]ear of them, it requires to cast the ship upon the larboard tack, [...] make a stern-board. In all these proceedings I speak of a [...]ree mast ship, and the main braces leading aft.

To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, and back her a-stern of Danger, as above mentioned.

IN trading ships it requires all hands to heave up the anchor, therefore all the necessary sails should be made as ready as possi­ble; the three top-sails hoisted, and the yards braced sharp up, [...]ith the larboard braces, and the mizen hauled out, before [...]eighing. In this situation you have only to attend the helm, [...] put it a-port, when the anchor weighs; the tide running aft [...] against the starboard side of the rudder, and in that direction all cast the ship the right way, and bring the wind upon the [...]rboard bow, which may be kept so at pleasure by the helm, [...]til the ship begins to get stern-way through the water, which [...]ould be strictly noticed, to put the helm hard a-port or a-wea­ther; the wind now on the larboard bow with the top-sails [...] back, will soon give the ship stern-way through the water, which will act against the larboard side of the rudder in that [...]rection, and will have great power to prevent the ship from [...]ling off too fast from the wind, and by the anchor under the [...] whilst it is heaving up, and the fore-top-sail kept shiver­ing, she will drive clear of the danger. Thus making a stern­ [...]ard, gives an advantage in getting under way as above, from [...] single anchor; as the anchor heaves up easier when the ship [...] a stern, and at the same time it is heaving up it helps▪ to [...] the ship's head to the wind, which will continue the stern­ [...]y the longer; but notwithstanding all these helps, it is w [...]ll [...]own from experience, that a ship cannot be steered long stern [...]emost under sail, so as to keep the wind before the beam, [...] then, the stern-way, the power of the helm, and her falling [...] will all cease at the same time; and the ship will drive [...]ad-side through the water for a little time, until she gets [...]-way, which will be the proper time to ware, as above [Page 18] mentioned, if the anchor is close up. But where there is little room to ware, I would advise not to attempt it (if it can be avoided) until the anchor is quite hove up; for many ships have been run on shore in attempting to ware, by stress of head sail, whilst the anchor is heaving up. But let us suppose, that from the above situation, instead of backing a-stern to clear a danger, it requires that the ship be shot a-head, and that there is but just room enough, close by the wind, to clear a danger that lies in the way to leeward.

To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack and shoot her by the Wind a-head of Danger.

SUPPOSE a ship to be in a situation that she could not be got under way with safety without shooting a-head of another ship that lies to leeward: to proceed with safety from such a situation, much depends on the anchor being hove briskly up, after it is out of the ground, and having proper sails ready to set to the best advantage; the three top-sails must be hoisted and the yards sharp braced up, with the larboard braces for­ward, and the starboard braces aft, when the anchor is at a long peek, so that, at weighing the anchor, you may have only the helm to attend▪ putting it hard a-port, the tide will act upon the rudder, and the fore-top-sail being braced sharp up with the larboard braces, will readily cast or box the ship off, the right way, so as to fill the after sails, when the fore-top-sail may soon be braced about, and filled, before she gets stern way, and the helm may keep the ship under command, to steer her by the wind a-head, clear of the danger: but if the ship gets stern way in casting, the helm should be clapped hard a-weather to prevent her falling too much off from the wind; and when she gets head way again, you should be very cau­tious how you use the weather-helm, with the anchor much below the bows, which increases the resistance forward, and may bring the ship up in the wind, so as to prevent her shoot­ing clear of the danger; which should be guarded against by the weather-helm, and head sails, as jib and fore-top-mast stay-sail, &c. As soon as the ship i [...] shot far enough a-head to clear the danger to leeward, and there is but little room a-head, it is certainly best to bring the ship to, and drive with the helm a-lee, [Page 19] with the main and mizen-top-sails a-back, and the fore-top-sail shivering, till the anchor i [...] up▪ then take proper time to ware, as before recommended.

Suppose a ship riding in smooth water, in the stream of a tide, with the wind two points on the starboard bow, and so near the shore on the larboard side, that she must be cast upon the larboard tack to clear the shore.

To cast a Ship on the Larboard Tack, when riding in a Tide, with the Wind two Points on the Starboard Bow.

THIS I have done from the above situation, by the com­mon method of proceeding, as mentioned in the last case, hav­ing the three top-sails hoisted, and the yards sharp braced up with the starboard braces aft, and the larboard braces forward, with the starboard fore-top bowline well hauled, and at the anchor's weighing, putting the helm hard a-port; the tide act­ing upon the rudder, and the wind upon the sails braced in that direction, brought the ship about, with the wind on the larboard bow, before she got stern-way, which should be al­ways strictly noticed; for in all proceedings of this kind, if the ship gets stern-way, before she brings the wind right a-head, you may be sure that she will not come about the right way; in that case, it must be the surest way, directly to veer away cable, and bring the ship up again, and carry out a small an­chor, on the larboard bow, taking in the rope and hauling it tight, on the larboard quarter, when the [...]ower anchor is a-peek, or you must lay till the windward tide makes, to bring the wind on the larboard bow, when you may get under way and clear the shore.

To cast a Ship upon the Larboard Tack, when riding with the Wind right a-head, and to ware her short around before the Wind in little Room.

IN this case, the head sails only should be loose, that is, the fore-top-sail hoisted, the fore-sail in the brails, braced sharp up with the larboard braces, the jib and fore-top-mast stay-sail set with the larboard sheets flat aft, when the anchor is a-peek; and if there is a lee tide running at weighing the anchor, the helm [Page 20] should be put a-port, so far as to bring the wind a little on the larboard bow, which should be kept so, by steering the ship until the tide ceases to run aft, which should be strictly noticed by the water along side; then put the helm hard a-starboard or a-lee, and when the ship gets stern-way, the water acts very powerfully on the starboard or lee side of the rudder in that direction, to turn the ship's stern to windward, whilst the wind acting the same way upon the sails a-back, will box her round off upon her heel, so as to bring the wind almost aft, by the time she loses her stern-way; then the ship will cease falling off, and soon get head-way, which should be attended to, and the head sails be braced about flat, with the starboard braces, and the helm shifted hard a-port at the same time.

When there is no tide, but the water still at weighing the anchor, the helm must be hard a starboard, and as the ship gets stern-way, the water meets with so much resistance against the starboard side of the rudder in that direction, that the rudder acts with great power to turn the ship's stern round to port, and the head sails being set and trimmed as above mentioned, and the fore-sail let fall, with the starboard bowline hauled close for­ward, will contribute to cast the ship the right way round, so [...] by the time she loses her stern-way that you may then pro­ceed as above directed, and may get the ship under command of the helm to steer at pleasure as she gets head-way. Success in this case depends greatly on heaving up the anchor briskly. From the above, it will be easy to know how to cast and get a ship under way upon the starboard tack; the same rules hold good, only to manage the helm and sails the contrary way to that which has been already described.

On Turning to Windward.

IT may not be a-miss here to endeavour to explain by what means, and upon what principles it is that this most noble and useful machine a ship, is made to gain ground, and is brought about from one tack to the other, against the wind and waves, when they are moderate. It is well known that we have ships that will sail from six to nine miles an hour upon a wind, when it blows fresh and the water i [...] smooth, and will make their way good within six points of the wind, so as to gain to windward, [Page 21] in still water, one third of what they run by the log: suppose [...] miles an hour to gain three to windward, with the sails [...]mmed in that oblique or slanting direction as has been par­ticularly described; which certainly tends to force the ship much [...]re broadside to leeward, than a-head; for it is a known principle, that a ship sailing with the wind upon the beam and [...] plane of the sails trimmed to four points or forty-five degrees [...] the direction of the keel, [...]he sails at that angle tend equal­ [...] drive the ship broadside to leeward as a-head; so that a [...] sailing and turning to windward, as above mentioned, [...] be owing to the shape of her hull, which makes little re­ [...]nce a-head, compared with the great resistance made by the [...]dside in the water; not only by the ship's extraordinary [...] in proportion to her breadth, but all those thin parts, [...] dead wood, cutwater, gripe, stem, keel, sternpost, and rud­ [...] which make very little resistance in the ship's going a-head, [...] very powerful resistance sideways! that though the sails are [...]mmed in that sharp direction, yet in a moderate wind, when [...] ship can carry all her sails by the wind, and in smooth water, [...] will sail with the wind two points before the beam as fast, [...] faster, than she will right before it, with the same breeze.

On Tacking and Turning to Windward.

THAT excellent property of a ship in turning to windward [...] staying well, depends greatly on her dimensions, shape of [...] bottom, and being trimmed: and I reckon a ship is in the [...] trim for tacking, as well as sailing, both by the wind and [...]; and is most manageable on all occasions, when she will [...]ost steer herself close by the wind with all her principal sails, [...]ying the helm near a-midships with a trembling motion; [...] fast sailing ship will often do, when it blows fresh, and the [...] is smooth, though two thirds of the canvas stand before [...] main-mast, and a good deal of it over the bows, upon the [...] sprit and jib-boom, when there is none which projects over [...] stern: when a ship carries the helm a-lee at such times, it [...] that she is too much by the stern, or the masts are stay­ [...] stand too far forward; but when a ship is not enough by stern, or the masts rake o [...] stand [...] far aft, [...] will gripe, [...] carry the helm a-weather; this i [...] thought by many to be an [Page 22] advantage in turning to windward, but experience proves [...] be false, for the more resistance the water meets with, the [...] will the ship be hindered from going a-head, whilst there mains the same force to drive her sideways.

To tack a Ship when in a dangerous Situation by a rough Sea when her Trim or her Property is such as may make her Steer­ing doubtful.

SUCH circumstances certainly deserve attention, as [...] may depend upon management; every thing should be [...] and clear, the people properly stationed, the sails fairly trimm [...] the ship cunned and steered just full and close by the wind, if it is a rough sea, to take the advantage of the first [...] time, when the ship has as much head-way upon her as can expected.

To haul down the jib, if set, at such times is of great servi [...] and not to put the helm a-lee all at once, but luff the ship [...] by degrees to shake the sails, and not until then, order the [...] hard a-lee with a loud voice, to let go the lee-sheets forward but not the lee-braces and fore-top bowline as in common [...] back the head sails too soon, that stops the ship's head-way which must continue to give power to the helm until the [...] is brought a-head, else you may be sure the ship will not [...]. To off tacks and sheets, and haul the main-sail when the [...] is a-point on the weather [...]ow, this swings the yards sharp [...] that the main-tack may be got close down, whilst the head [...] becalm the fore-leach of the main and main-top sails, at [...] same time the wind blowing a slant on the after leach of th [...] sails acts jointly with the rudder to turn the ship's stern so as bring her about the right way. When a ship comes about, such times she is sure to have stern-way by the time the [...] sails are hauled; therefore the helm should not be shifted a- [...] [...] is commonly done, but should be kept hard a-weather [...] her stern way ceases: the water acting upon the weather-side the rudder, prevents the ship falling round off from the [...] which the helm when hand a-lee occasions whilst the stern- [...] continues; and strict notice should be made by some object head, or by [...] compass that the ship continues coming [...] until the wind is [...] other bow▪ for if she stops with [...] [Page 23] [...] a-head, and by the water along side, her head-way is per­ [...]ed to be done▪ the helm should be directly shifted over to [...] other side, so that by the stern-way the water may act upon [...] rudder and bring her about the right way, and then the [...] should not be kept a-lee, but immediately shifted, and [...] hard a-weather until the stern-way ceases; for the reason [...] given, the head sails may be hauled as soon as possible, [...] the ship will be sure to f [...]ll off the faster, and farther, in [...] portion to her stern-way, so that the weather-braces should [...]ended to prevent the head-yards flying fore and aft, as they [...] do if it blows fresh, and to keep the head sails shivering, [...] the fore-tack may be got easily down close, the ship stop [...] sooner from falling off, and shifting the helm a-lee when stern-way ceases, the head sails may be trimmed sharp as ship is perceived to come to.

Tack a quick turning Ship in a fresh Gale, and smooth Water.

A GOOD or bad haul in this case makes a material differ­ence in gaining to windward, in wear and tear and in case of [...] people. I have been in a ship, that when hauling the [...]-sail it was always catched a-back, so that we had the [...]-tack to get down five or six feet, and the after sails to [...] after the ship was tacked; and this is often the case, ow­ [...] to the custom of always putting the helm hard a-lee whe­ [...] the ship requires it so far or not, and not hauling the [...]-sail until the wind is right a-head: therefore to make a [...] haul at the time when it is known that the ship will be [...] in stays, the helm should not be put hard a-lee as cus­tomary, but half down a-lee, less or more, as experience proves [...] sufficient to bring her about before she loses her head­ [...] to off tacks and sheets as soon as the sails shake, that main-sail may be hauled with the wind two points on the [...]-bow; this management helps the ship instays, and gives [...] and a favorable opportunity to get the main-tack close on [...], and the after sails fairly trimmed by the time they fill, [...] the people may be all at liberty to haul and trim the [...]-sails; then the helm should be shifted, or righted only, [...] ship may require by her head, or stern-way, to work her [...] and not always hard a-lee as customary; for if the ship [Page 24] has head-way, it may bring her up into the wind, and if stern-way, it may make her fall broad off from the wind, as before mentioned. It must be allowed that the less helm a ship [...] tacked with, so as she doth not get stern-way, the farther she will shoot and gain to windward in stays, for the rudder stops the ship's way through the water more or less in proportion as the helm is put over to either side; and as to a ship's coming about with little helm, it is well known that will often happen when not intended.

In narrow channels, where a ship has very little room [...] turn to windward, she may require the helm to be put down hard a-lee all at once, and the lee-braces forward, sheets, an [...] fore-top bowline, all to be let go at the same time, also to bra [...] the head sails, which may prevent the ship shooting on shore [...] stays. When this happens, the main-sail may be hauled wi [...] the wind three points on the weather-bow when the after-sail shake, and the head-sails take a-back, by being braced to which will give more time to get down the main tack, and trim the after sails without hindering, but rather helping [...] ship to stay, as before observed.

Turning to Windward in very narrow Channels.

SAFETY depends greatly on getting a ship at first fairly under way, and where there is water enough, it is certainly be to heave short upon the anchor, and weigh with the first of th [...] tide's making to windward; and if the wind is partly across the tide, it will cast the ship with her head towards the weather shore, which may be kept clear of, by driving with the three top-sails a-back, and the mizen hauled out, until the anchor is up and stowed; and as the tack towards the weather sho [...] is shortest, it is prudent to back as near the lee side as you ca [...] with safety, to make the first board the longer, to get the proper sails fairly set, and to get all ready in time for tacking and to make as bold as possible with the weather shore, [...] which side a ship is always surest in coming about, and in case of missing stays, a ship may be backed without any dang [...] from the weather shore, as above mentioned, until she has room to fill and set the sails, and get all her head-way to try her [...] stays again: but when the ship is got about to stand towards [Page 25] the lee shore, where she is not so sure in stays when going slanting with the tide, as when going across it, and especially [...] there run any waves that may hinder the ship's staying and not being sure of all the ropes running clear upon this tack for the first time, therefore it may be necessary to put the ship in stays in good time, that in case of a miss, there may be room enough to fill and try her a second time, or to use such means [...]s may prevent her going on shore. But when the wind is [...]ight against the tide that begins to make to windward, it re­quires caution not to weigh the anchor until the ship swings and on to the tide, and brings the wind so far aft, that she may be steered right against the tide, until the anchor is up and sowed, and the sails with which the ship is to be worked are all ready; and to haul the wind from being close over to one side, which gives the whole breadth of the channel, to get the ship fairly under way close by the wind, and ready for tacking, at the first trip be made as short as possible, until it is found sow the ship and people work upon both tacks, and make [...]em longer, or shorter accordingly afterwards; but care should be taken not to stand into an eddy tide on either side, which may be perceived by a ripling, this has often occasioned ships [...] miss stays and go on shore. There is a saying among seamen [...]at if a ship will not stay you must ware her, and if she will [...]ot ware, you must box-haul her, and if you cannot box-haul [...], you must club-haul her, that is, you must let go the anchor to get her about on the other tack; each of these mast­erly performances deserve particular notice.

On Box-hauling a Ship.

MANY advantages as well as safety, depends on this being properly put in practice; for it often happens that a ship re­ [...]ses stays, when there is not room to ware in time, so as to [...]oid danger, by the common method of filling the head, and [...]vering the after sails, &c. Therefore, whenever a ship in a dangerous situation is put in stays, and it is perceived that [...] stops coming to, before she brings the wind a-head, it is [...]en certain that she will not stay, therefore she should be im­mediately box-hauled by keeping the helm hard a-lee, and [...]ul off all, bracing about the head as well as after sails, haul­ing [Page 26] close forward the lee fore-top bowline, up with the mizen, and down after stay-sails at the same time; the wind will th [...] act upon the sails thus a-back, and the water upon the lee [...] of the rudder by her stern-way, will box the ship short round on her heel with her stern up to the wind, far enough aft for the after sails to draw full the right way to act with the helm which must be shifted hard a-weather when the stern-way ceases, so that the head-way with the wind so far aft, will readily bring the ship round on the other tack: the main and fore tacks are easily got down when the wind is upon the quarter, and shive [...] the sails; the main-sheet easily hauled aft, and the after-sail braced up and trimmed sharp as the ship brings the wind more aft, which help her round the faster, till the wind comes [...] the other quarter, that the mizen and mizen stay-sail may be set to take the right way, to bring her to the wind, whil [...] you tend and trim the head-sails, as she comes to.

Box-hauling may be proved to be the surest and readiest me­thod to get a ship under command of the rudder and sails, to answer many occasions in little room, as well as to ware and bring her from one tack to the other, with the least loss of ground to leeward, when a ship refuses stays: nice managers of sloop rigged vessels, turning to windward in narrow channels, when they want but little to weather a point, rather than make another tack, have a practice of running up into the wind, until the head-way ceases, then fill again upon the same tack, this they call making a half board: thus a ship may be said to make two half boards; first, running with her head, then with he [...] stern, up in the wind, by which two motions, a ship well man­aged, rather gains to windward and brings the wind almost aft by the time the stern-way ceases, so that she is under the command of the weather helm, and the after sails, to bring her short round on the other tack, with the first of the head-way, in which time only it is, that the ship goes any thing to leeward worth notice, in box-hauling; therefore it should be always put in practice on these occasions; by putting the ship in stays, although it is known she will not come about with her head to the windward; and in a gale of wind, and high waves; or when there is not people enough to manage and haul the head sails, the after sails only may be hauled, and the fore-sheet hauled close down aft again, when it is perceived the ship is done coming to.

On Club-hauling a Ship.

THIS is to get a ship from one tack to the other by letting go an anchor, when, by an eddy tide, or by a rough sea, or being [...]ut of trim, or from any other cause, she refuses to stay or ware in time to avoid danger: when this happens in shoal water, found by the lead, that if the ship has not water over her anchor, she should have stern-way given her, and not head-way, when the anchor is let go; and the weather anchor is likelier to go clear of the ship than the lee one; therefore both bower anchors should be ready on these occasions. Turning to windward at sea shall be noticed hereafter.

On a Ship driving to Windward with the Tide.

IT often happens that there is not room to turn a vessel to windward through a croud of ships, or in narrow channels, but she must drive by the help of the windward tide. A ship in this situation, must be managed according to the manner you design to proceed; for if the tide is strong enough in propor­tion to the wind, so that she will drive fast enough to windward, stern foremost, it will certainly be the best, as it may be done with or without any sail set, the yards being sharp braced up; [...] ship may be steered at pleasure, and to a great nicety, end on [...] the tide, and she will drive stern foremost in less room than [...]er own length; but it will require above three times her length [...] drive sideways or broadside to the tide, if the wind is right against the tide; and dexterous management is required on such occasions, because a ship will always shoot a-head and tend to­ward that shore a-head of her, so that you cannot drive far upon one tack, though with sails a-back, without waring at times, to drive on the other tack, or the ship will soon shoot [...]n that shore a-head of her; which has been the case often, in [...]pite of all endeavours to back a-stern.

Reasons why Ships shoot a-head more than they can be backed a-stern when driving Broadside with the Tide, tho' the Sails are a-back.

SHIPS in general have a longer or a sharper run aft, than they have an entrance forward, the sternpost and rudder, stands [Page 28] more upright than the stem and gripe, and they swim more or less by the stern; therefore the after part of the ship must be more powerfully acted upon by the windward tide, than her fore part in the water, which consequently sets her stern more to windward than her head, which at the same time, is more act [...] upon by the wind above water than her stern, in proportion [...] the foremast, and all belonging to it, is larger and stands [...] forward than the mizen-mast stands aft, and the bowsprit, [...] the jib-boom, and all that belongs to them, projecting so far over the bows, and nothing projecting over the stern to hole wind, in the same proportion abaft; they must naturally cause the ship to drive with the wind abaft the beam. And [...] the most effectual means are supposed to be used on such occasi­ons, to keep the ship's bow to the wind, and prevent as muc [...] as possible her falling off, and shooting a-head, by letting her drive with the after sails braced flat a-back, the mizen hauled out, the helm hard a-lee, and the head sails kept shivering; [...] appears at first view that a ship in this situation may be backed a-stern at pleasure, but experience proves to the contrary, [...] the following reasons may be added to those above; the helm must be kept a-lee when driving this way, and tho' the after sails are a-back the ship will shoot a-head, and back a-stern al­ternately, she will come to, with a slow motion by her head-way until she brings the wind before the beam, which gives h [...] stern-way, and makes her fall round off upon her heel, with [...] quick motion, and bring the wind so far abaft the beam, th [...] she soon gets head-way, so that she will shoot much farther [...] head, than she backs a-stern, which makes it difficult to drive broadside with the tide right against the wind, in little room with safety. But I have heard of this difficulty being overcome by two vessels driving broadside with their sterns confined ne [...] together by a rope, that each vessel could check and command the other, at pleasure, to keep in a fair way, which I think [...] practicable to the advantage of both vessels, as they may drive without any sails, only hoisting a stay-sail occasionally.

To drive a Ship Broadside to Windward with the Tide right against the Wind.

IT is a masterly and necessary piece of seamanship, to be [Page 29] able to perform this with safety where there is little room, and a strong tide right against the wind. We will suppose a ship in a harbour so crouded with ships, that she cannot be got clear any other way than by driving stern foremost with the tide against [...]he wind, and after she has cleared the fleet that way, which may be easily done, as has been already mentioned; and the chan­nel should be only wide enough to admit her to drive broadside [...] windward▪ which may make a great deal of difference in the ship's driving, according to the wind and tide; for if we sup­pose the wind blows so fresh, that the ship cannot be made to [...] less than at the rate of two miles an hour, through the water, [...]hen driving stern foremost, the tide must run at the rate of three miles, to make her drive one mile an hour to windward, [...]ut where the tide runs but two miles an hour, the ship will [...]en be at a stand between wind and tide, but when she is brought to, and drives broadside, she will drive one mile and [...] half an hour to windward, which makes a very great differ­ence. A ship may drive stern foremost without any sail, as she only requires steerage way to command her, and the less way [...] has through the water the faster she will drive, so that when [...] blows fresh, to contrive and make stop-waters may be of ser­vice to help her to windward. But to bring a ship to, where [...]ere is little room, so as to drive broadside, will require the three top-sails, the mizen, the jib, and the fore-top-mast stay-sail, to be ready to hoist, to make her manageable to back, or [...], stay, or ware, as may be required; for to endeavour to [...]ing a ship to, without sail to throw her a-back occasionally, [...] would perhaps shoot on that shore a-head, before she loses [...] head-way. Now let us suppose that a ship after driving stern foremost as above mentioned, has set her top-sails braced [...]arp up with the larboard braces, in order to bring to, and [...]ive broadside on the larboard tack: in this case the ship [...]ould be sheered as near the starboard shore as she possibly [...] with safety, then put the helm hard a-starboard, hauling [...]t the mizen as soon as it will take the right way, so as to [...]ing the ship round to, with the top-sails a-back, to prevent [...] shooting too near the larboard shore. A ship bringing to [...] much head-way, will bring the wind nearly right a-head, [...] the time the head-way ceases; then the helm should be sifted hard a-weather, and the sails being a-back, will soon [Page 30] give her great stern-way, by which means a stern-board may be made to back her as near the shore a-stern as possible, [...] as it has been observed, a ship driving broadside may be [...] shot a-head when she cannot be backed a-stern; and this [...] only time a stern-board can be made to advantage at the ship's bringing to; for when the stern-way ceases, the helm [...] put and kept hard a-lee, and the ship must drive with the [...] and mizen top-sails a-back, the mizen hauled out, and [...] fore-top-sail kept a shivering; and if the mizen stay-sail [...] set with the sheet to windward, it might help to keep her [...] to the wind, so that she might drive the farther on one tack before you are obliged to ware her to drive on the other tack which must be done as soon as the ship is perceived to draw near the shore a-head, which will always be the case with a [...] driving right to windward, for the reasons already given.

When you intend to ware, as a ship is always coming [...] and falling off, by her head and stern-way, when thus driving take the opportunity, when she has just done falling off [...] her stern-way, as she is then as far a-stern as she will be upon that tack, and the wind as far aft, being then all ready, up miz­en, down mizen stay-sail (if set) shiver the main and mizen top-sails, fill flat the fore-top-sail, up jib and fore-top-mast stay sails, if necessary, shift the helm hard a-weather, the tide the setting round the stern, it will act with such power upon th [...] rudder in that direction, that with the first of her head-way, the ship may be wared, and proceeding as before, brought to, so as to drive on the other tack; in this manner a ship may be managed, to change tacks, and drive right forward to wind­ward with the tide, in less room than any one would thi [...] possible that had not experienced it. But instead of warning, [...] last mentioned, I cannot help thinking it would be better [...] put the ship in stays, filling the after sails flat, keeping the fore top-sail just drawing full till the ship comes to, so that it [...] take a-back to help her about, and if she stays, let the he [...] lie, as it will then be, a-weather; the ship may then be back­ed, by making a stern-board towards the shore a-stern, at plea­sure; and if she refuses stays, it gives a favorable opportunity to brace the top-sails a-back, and box-haul her round, as [...] been described under the title of Box-hauling, by which [...] will lose less ground than by waring, and the ship's trim [...] [Page 31] require this practice, as it is known that loaded colliers will [...] when they will not ware, and when light in ballast, they [...]ill ware when they will not stay. The above management [...] founded on a supposition that a ship is to drive through a [...] straight reach, or channel, when the tide runs true against [...] wind.

To drive Broadside to Windward with the Tide running across the Channel, or in a River of a winding or serpentine Form.

IN channels where the tide runs across through swashes, [...]. the ship must be laid to drive with her head towards [...]at shore the tide sets from, and the setting of cross tides [...] best perceived by some objects which may be found to lie early in the direction of the channel; observe nicely how your [...] opens and shuts these marks, that the sails may be kept back, shivering, or full, to shoo [...]-head, as the tide may re­quire, so as to keep the ship in a fair way. Driving in a crook­ [...] or serpentine river, the tide commonly runs winding like [...] river from a point over to a bay on the other side, and out the bay again past the next point, into the next opposite [...], &c. therefore at the bottom of each bay, where the tide [...]ins to set out again, the ship should be put on the other [...], to drive with her head towards the next point, by which [...]ans a ship may be backed a-stern, to drive clear of the [...] a-head, upon both tacks. When the wind blows a point two of the compass, across a tide that runs true, a ship driv­e with her head towards the weather side, may be easily ma­naged, so as to keep in a fair way, by backing, filling, or shi­ [...]ing the sails, and the more the sails can be kept shivering, [...] faster the ship will drive. Though a windward tide helps ship to work, and makes her manageable when driving to windward, yet it is very necessary to have an anchor ready to let [...] as occasion may require.

On bringing a Ship to an Anchor.

VARIOUS situations, and different sorts of harbours, roads, [...] coasts, different directions and strength of winds, waves, [...] tides, make it impossible to fix certain rules to bring a [Page 32] ship properly to an anchor, at all times and places; yet in my opinion a great deal may be said on this subject, that deserves notice. And first, it may not be a miss to make some remarks on coiling of cables.

On Coiling Cables.

IT may be the loss of a ship to coil a new cable with the sun, as it is termed, before it is properly stretched, or the end taken through the coil; for it is almost sure to come up in kinks when veered out, especially in cold weather. The greatest de­pendance being on new cables, they are commonly kept in reserve until the other cables, or anchors, give way, which makes this bad practice in coiling them, the more dangerous; therefore it should be first considered, how to manage the cables, to make them coil and work to the best advantage, and run clear of catch-sakes as well [...] kinks. A cable in my opinion, works and wears much better for being coiled the same way that it runs round the windlass, or bitts; therefore the cables for the starboard anchors, which work round the windlass against the sun, should be coiled against the sun, and those for the larboard anchors, coiled with the sun, as they work that way round the windlass, and as they run out round the bitts, the contrary way, so that the cables should be coiled accordingly. And to make new cables answer this practice, is the first time to coil them with the sun over the cable tier hatchway, with larger or less fakes, ac­cording to the limberness or stiffness of the rope, and take the up­per end thro' the coil, to coil it down in the tier; this will make the rope pliable to coil, and veer a way easy, clear of kinks, either with or against the sun. To coil a cable to run clear of catch-fakes, the cable should always be laid out from the inside fake to the outside fake, at the farther end of the cable-tier, farthest from the hatchway; this will likewise coil the cable so much lower in that part near the hatchway, so as to give more room, and height, to bend and coil the cable, and for the bends to upset clear when veering away.

The bad custom of coiling cables with the sun so as to run in kinks, proceeds first from the rope-makers, who for their ease, coil them that way to send them to the ships, where, with­out thought, they are too commonly coiled down the cable-tier [Page 33] the same way; because a new cable before it is well stretched, will always bend of itself that way in coiling; for the rope open­ing against the lay, gets clear of a turn at the bend of every fake, which is the reason that a new cable bends and coils so easy this way; but when this cable comes to be veered out, this turn must come into the cable again at the upsetting of every bend; but the lay of the rope inclines it to keep clear of this turn, which prevents the fakes from upsetting, and cause it to come up in kinks; by which bad practice there has been ma­ny narrow escapes: therefore all new cable laid ropes, haw­sers, and tow-lines, as well as cables, that require to run clear of kinks, should be either coiled against the sun until they are well stretched, or with the sun, and the end taken through the coil, as before mentioned; for the same reason, as it is well known, a coil of new rigging will not run clear of kinks, without the end is properly taken through the coil. But to coil a new cable against the sun, that is, from the right hand to the left, requires a turn to be forced into the lay of the rope, at the bend of every fake, which makes it troublesome to coil this way; but this turn in every fake makes the bends upset of themselves, so that the cable veers out very easy.

Now if we may suppose that the anchors and cables are all ready, so as to be sure of running clear; the next things to be considered, are the depth of water, the room, strength of the wind, waves, or tide, where you expect to anchor; and that the buoy and buoy-rope, range of cable, handspikes, stoppers, ring-ropes, and buckets of water to throw on the windlass or bitts, be all ready, as occasion may require, and to give as great a scope of cable as the place will permit, before you offer to bring the ship up; because the length and weight of the cable will contribute greatly to ease both the anchor and cable, as well as the ship, when the waves run high; for which reason, some ships have the inner ends of the sheet, and best-bower cables spliced toge­ther, so that by oversetting one cable, they may veer out both upon one end to either anchor, if necessity require it; for it is well known, in a storm, when the waves run high, and especially in deep water, that a ship will ride much easier and much longer, by two cables or more, upon one end, to one good anchor, than by two anchors with a single cable to each. For to ride by two anchors, they must lie far enough asunder on each [Page 34] bow, to prevent one anchor from hurting the other cable, by which a ship seldom pulls hard upon both cables at the same time; but first pulling hard upon one cable, if but a short scope, it plunges her deep into the sea; then that strain draws the ship towards that anchor, which slackens that cable, so that by the next wave she strains hard upon the other cable, and so on, she pulls first at one, and then at the other, which causes a ship to labor, and to be very uneasy in the waves, in comparison to what she would be, if riding by one good anchor, and a great scope of cable, which admits the ship to fall and rise easy with the waves, without hauling the whole length and weight of the cable off the ground, which makes the anchor hold longer without com­ing home. In letting go an anchor, care should be taken that the ship do not hurt herself upon it, in case of shoal water, and that the anchor is not fouled by the cable getting round the fluke or stock of the anchor, which may prevent its holding the ship when any strain comes upon it.

To come to an Anchor when the Wind is right against the Tide.

IT should be a rule to shoot the ship a-head of the anchor, or sheer her clear of it, upon the same tack you design to shoot her upon the next tide, endeavouring always to keep the ship in swinging with the tide on one side of the anchor, to keep clear of it, for reasons that will be given in its place, on keep­ing a clear anchor. We will suppose that the ship driving with the tide to windward, has got to an anchoring birth, and must come to an anchor on the starboard tack. In this case at let­ting go the anchor, the ship should be shot a-head of it, and kept a-head with the weather helm, and the yards braced full with the larboard braces, the fore-top-mast stay-sail and mizen set full, until the windward tide is done, that she falls to leeward and rides wind-road, with the wind, anchor, and cable right a-head; in which position she will lie until the next windward tide.

To come to Anchor when going with a strong Wind and Tide the same Way.

WHERE there is room, it is certainly necessary to furl the square sails, as the ship is running before the wind and tide, [Page 35] and to take room to bring her to, by putting the helm hard over to starboard or port, and haul out the mizen, to bring the ship's head up as much as possible against the wind and tide, at letting go the anchor; which will contribute greatly to bring the ship with safety and ease, compared with that bad practice of letting go the anchor as the ship runs right before the wind and tide, without handing the square sails; which adds all that extraordinary force of the ship's way thro' the water, to the strength of the wind and tide, which increases the strain, and rubs the cable to a dangerous degree, by which great damage has been often done, as breaking of cables, &c. which might have been avoided by bringing the ship to, and letting the anchor go, as above recommended. The damage that is often done on this occasion, proceeds from want of con­sideration. A ship sailing right before the wind, and a strong tide, does not feel the real strength of the wind, therefore ap­prehending no danger, they let go the anchor as the ship runs, which if it does not make something give way, must greatly strain every thing that is concerned in bringing the ship up.

To come to an Anchor when the Wind is right across the Tide.

WHERE it can be done, the ship should be always put upon that tack that stems against the tide when the anchor is let go; and if it is designed to continue at a single anchor, in order to keep it clear, I would recommend to sheer and keep the ship to leeward of the anchor, by keeping the helm a-weather, and the fore-top-mast stay-sail set with the sheet to windward▪ for the reasons which will be given, on keeping a clear anchor. Great advantages may attend letting go the anchor stemming the tide, and especially where the tide runs over rapid, for it gives an opportunity to take notice at what rate the ship may be going a-stern, so as to judge whether it may not be necessa­ry to keep sail set, in order to help to bring the ship up, and ride easy in a rapid tide.

To come to Anchor at slack Tide, or in still Water, where there is neither Tide nor Current.

IT is expected in this case, that the sails are taken in, as [Page 36] the strength of the wind and situation may require, to bring the ship up with ease; in moderate weather, and where there is room, it is certainly best to bring the ship to under top-sails, throwing her head up to the wind by putting the helm a-lee with the top-sails lowered down or clewed up; and when the ship is perceived to get stern-way, then let go the anchor to the ground, and veer out no more cable but as the ship takes it, by driving to leeward from the anchor, and not offer to bring the ship up, until it is thought that she has a sufficient scope of cable to ride her, on which it depends to make the anchor and cable hold, as occasion may require.

To come to Anchor in Roads that are often crowded with Ships, so as to take and give good and clear Births.

THE best anchoring in these places is commonly well known by marks, which birth the first ship naturally takes up and has a right to keep, clear from any other ship anchoring so near as to make her a foul birth. When a ship has taken a birth, some marks should be taken by the compass, and their distance and bearings noted down in the log-book; also ex­treme points of land, shoals, rocks and sands should be noted, so that a course may be steered to keep clear of them, if the ship should be drove from her anchors in the night or in thick weather, and that the anchors may be found again by the marks made when they were let go, if the buoys should disappear.

If it is a tide or trade-wind road-stead, the next ship that comes, ought not to anchor right a-head or right a-stern of the first ship, so as to lay in each other's hawse, but should come to, on the bows or quarter at a proper distance, to prevent oth­er ships from coming between, and in a slanting direction from the tide or wind. This, in my opinion, might contribute to the safety of ships in such places as the Downs and Yarmouth roads in Europe, or in some of the roads in the West-Indies, and other such places, that may be crowded with ships. When it happens to blow strong upon a lee tide, or in strong sea breezes in the West-Indies, each single ship may then veer away what cable may be thought necessary, and keep clear of the other ship's hawse a-stern; or in case of driving or casting, this gives a better chance to keep clear of each other. It has [Page 37] been found to be an advantage, when coming into a road crowded to run through the fleet, where may be often per­ceived good births left vacant by some ships that had sailed; then steering out and turning to windward of them all, so far as to give time to take in and furl all the sails, and run down before the wind amongst the ships, without any sail, and let go anchor in the birth you make choice of, which can't be come at any other way.

To come to an Anchor when designed to moor with the best and small Bower Anchors.

IN places exposed to waves, from one quarter more than another, and if the ship is to lie for some time, exposed to all the various winds that may blow, it should be made a rule to let go the first anchor, so that the ship may be moored with the second anchor, to lay with an open hawse towards the sea, or the open or worst part of the road, or river, where the greatest waves can come from to give the ship violent pitching mo­tions, which are always very destructive to the cables when ri­ding hard with a cross in the hawse, for which reason the cross in the cables should always be towards the smooth water quar­ter.

To let go all the Anchors to the best Advantage, when that is the only Chance left to keep the Ship off a Lee Shore.

THIS desperate occasion happens when the anchoring ground lies less than two cable lengths from the lee shore, or when the ship is only that distance from it, with the wind and waves so high right upon the shore, that it is found impossible for the ship to keep off the shore, with all the sail she can car­ry; so that safety must depend entirely on the management of the ground-tackle.

In such a dangerous situation, where, if one anchor or cable fail, there is not room to bring the ship up with another, and it is counted a great disgrace to let a ship go on shore with any ground-tackle on board that might have been used to help to ride her, the utmost endeavors should be used to let go all the anchors, a little distance from each other, and as [Page 38] much as possible in a line along the shore, that one anchor may not hurt another cable, and the cables lead clear of each other, and made to bear a strain in proportion to their strength, to help to ride out the storm. To put this difficult performance in practice, I would recommend to get the square sails handed with the quickest dispatch possible, but to keep the fore-top-mast stay- sail, main-stay-sail, and mizen-stay-sails set, the yards braced full, and the helm put hard a-weather, to keep head-way upon the ship, shooting her along the shore as much as possi­ble, till all the anchors are let go; contriving to begin with the weathermost anchor, or that which has the cable in the wea­thermost hawse-hole, and so on with the next weathermost an­chor, paying out the cables as fast as possible, that the ship may keep shooting a-head till the last anchor is let go.

On keeping a clear Anchor.

IT is allowed to be a masterly and material branch in sea­manship, to be able to manage a vessel, riding in a tide-way, by a single anchor, so as to keep it clear from the cable getting foul of the fluke or stock, and sometimes foul of both fluke and stock, which may be the case; and the anchor thus foul­ed, as it is termed, prevents its holding the ship, and may oc­casion her to drive on shore, or athwart another ship's hawse, which often happens, from the want of proper method being put in practice to keep the anchor clear; this, therefore, de­serves the utmost regard, for in open road-steads, when only waiting for a fair wind, it may be better and safer to ride by a single anchor, than to be moored when it blows hard, and among many ships, which are liable to drive athwart each oth­er's hawse, so that, to save both ships, the leewardmost one may be obliged to cut or slip, if riding by single anchor, they may have only one cable to get clear of, which may be at a time when both ships and men may seem to be the sport of wind and waves, and which may make one ship to rise whilst the other falls, and tear in peices the strongest ships, and make the hearts of the most able and hardy seamen to fail; for what chance does feeble men stand, to send off the blows of one ship against another in high waves, when nothing is heard but the crashing of timber, &c. and crying out for the leeward most [Page 39] ship to cut, and relieve them; so that if moored, and she must part with both anchors, she may have only one anchor left to bring her up again, and ride by; and safety may still depend on keeping that clear; all which prove the great necessity of endeavoring, after fixed rules, to keep a single anchor clear.

To keep a clear Anchor, with the Wind right against the Tide.

IT should be a fixed rule on this occasion, at the tide first setting to windward, to shoot the ship a-head of the anchor to keep it clear, and not to offer to back her a-stern of it; for that is found by experience to be impracticable, not only for reasons given on driving a ship broadside, but because on this occasi­on, the cable lying upon the ground, the ship swinging with the tide, will bring the wind so much abaft the beam, that it will be impossible to back the ship a-stern, clear of her anchor; yet this has been attempted in capital merchant ships, and even in the British navy some have exposed their ignorance in this important point of duty. It should be another fixed rule, always to endeavour to shoot or shear a ship on the same side of the anchor each tide, to avoid the risk of the anchor's not turning in the ground as the ship goes round it, as she will do when she is let to pass at random, on one side of the anchor one tide, and on the other side of the anchor the next; by which bad practice the cable is liable to get foul of the upper fluke of the anchor. In this case I must refer back to the article of coming to an anchor when the wind is right against the tide; when the ship was brought to an anchor and shot a-head of it on the starboard tack; so that when the windward tide makes again, she should be cast and shot a-head of her anchor upon the same tack, until she swings to wind­ward of the anchor, and comes to a proper sheer, with a tight cable growing on the larboard bow, and the wind on the star­board quarter, keeping her on this sheer, with the helm a-port; then the sails may be taken in until the windward tide slacks, for there is no danger of a ship breaking her sheer, whilst the tide runs strong in proportion to the wind that keeps her a-stern of the anchor; but when the tide slacks, or the wind becomes so strong, that the ship shoots end on upon the tide, a-head of her anchor; then is the time that she is liable to break her [Page 40] sheer against her helm, and requires assistance with sail, and [...] yards to be braced about, &c. But to cast a ship on the star­board tack, as above mentioned, when the lee tide is done, [...] head yards should be braced up sharp with the starboard bra­ces, the after yards with the larboard braces, the fore-top-mast stay-sail set, with the starboard sheet hauled flat aft, and th [...] helm hard a-port; then the windward tide coming right aft acts upon the larboard side of the rudder, in a direction, such as will cant the ship's stern to starboard, and the wind at the same time acts upon the fore-top-mast stay-sail, and the head yards, to cast her head to port upon the starboard tack. And suppose that by the setting of the tide, or other accidents, con­trary to your design, the ship should cast on the larboard tack, in that case, every thing is ready trimmed as it should be, to ware her round on the other tack, the helm being hard a-port, is now hard a-weather, the head yards and fore-top-mast stay-sail is flat full, the after yards braced the other way, all act together, and will bring the ship round on the starboard tack, before she comes near her anchor; then the mizen may be hauled out, and the fore-top-mast stay-sail and head yards set drawing full, to shoot her a-head, till she drives to windward of the anchor, with a tight cable, as before described. But to cast a ship the right way at anchor, with a windward tide, is as fol­lows; first, to cast her upon the larboard tack when the lee-tide slacks, the helm is put a-port to sheer the ship and bring the wind on the larboard bow, then set the sprit-sail and sprit-sail top-sail, topped up to port, the jib and fore-top-mast stay-sail with the larboard sheets flat aft, and the jib-sheet under the sprit-sail yard-arm, to guy the sail farther out to port, the head yards braced up sharp with the larboard braces, the after­yards with the mizen top-sail set braced sharp up the other way; strict notice should be taken when the lee tide is quite done to put the helm hard a-starboard; so that the windward tide acting upon the starboard side of the rudder in that direc­tion, and the wind upon the sails and yards, makes them evi­dently tend to cast the ship the way designed [...] and when she is cast you have only to fill the head sails and yards to shoot her a-head, with a tight cable, till the tide sets her to wind­ward of the anchor, or swings her near end on to the tide, and brings the wind on the larboard quarter; then the head sails [Page 41] should be taken in, and the head yards pointed to the wind with the larboard braces, and if she continues to ride a-head of the anchor, which should be strictly noticed by the buoy or the growing of the cable, more after sail should be set, the mi­zen and mizen-stay-sail added to the mizen-top-sail, to help the starboard helm to keep the ship from breaking her sheer against the helm, and bringing the wind on her starboard quar­ter; when this happens with these sails set, the mizen and mizen stay-sail must be immediately taken in, shiver or keep drawing full the right way the mizen-top-sail, set the jib or fore-top-mast stay-sail, the yards and helm being trimmed the right way, as be­fore mentioned, to keep clear of the anchor, and to bring the ship round on her proper sheer again, with the wind on her larboard quarter; then down head sails, and endeavour to keep her on this sheer, as before directed, until the windward tide is done.

To keep clear of the Anchor when the Wind blows a Point or two across the Tide.

IN this situation, when the tide makes to windward, it will naturally cast the ship with her head towards the weather side, and for the reason before given, will swing her, to bring the wind so far abaft the beam as to prevent backing her a-stern of the anchor, to keep it clear; therefore, I would advise to shoot her a-head of the anchor to the weather side, till she comes to her proper sheer; the wind being on the quarter a little a­cross the tide, will keep her from breaking her sheer, whilst the windward tide runs, and she may be easily shot a-head on the same side of the anchor again, as before described, when the windward tide is done. But whenever the wind blows so far a-cross the tide, that the ship can be sheered and kept clear to leeward of her anchor, I recommend this as much the best practice to keep a clear anchor.

To keep a clear Anchor when the Wind is right across the Tide.

I STRONGLY recommend the simple and easy method of setting the fore-top-mast stay-sail with the weather-sheet flat aft, and the helm a-weather, whereby the ship may be sheered, and kept near the same place to leeward of her anchor, both flood and [Page 42] ebb: but this method of sheering to leeward, being quite con­trary to that bad custom of sheering ships to windward of their anchors, will induce me to be very explicit on this article, and shew the advantages of the one, and the disadvantages of the other. We will suppose that the wind is right off shore, and right across the tide, and a ship commanded by Capt. Reason has come to an anchor on the larboard tack stemming against the tide (as described in page 35) with her helm a-weather, to sheer the ship to leeward of the anchor, which method not only keeps the ship clear of her anchor, but also makes her ride so near end on to the tide, with the wind rather abaft the beam, that she may be helped with sail, to ride easier in a rapid tide; and when the tide is moderate, she will lie sheered right to lee-ward of her anchor, where she must be at each flack tide, as has been observed; and if we suppose that she came to anchor at slack tide, she then will lie with her cable and anchor in the same direction, with the wind right a-head; so that when either tide makes, so as to bring the wind upon the bow, they have only to hoist the fore-top-mast stay-sail with the sheet to windward, and put the helm a-weather, to keep her anchor clear. Now we will suppose that Capt. Custom commanding a ship, comes to an anchor on the starboard tack, stemming against the tide, and puts the helm a-lee, which sheers the ship and lays her anchor in a slanting direction to windward, until the tide be­gins to slack; then set the mizen-top-sail a-back, and in little wind sometimes add the main-top-sail a-back, to bring the ship a-stern clear of her anchor, which makes a ship form a sweep half around her anchor, according to her scope of cable, from her being near right to windward, to right to leeward of her anchor, where she must naturally lie in that situation every flack tide, with the wind and anchor right a-head, until the other tide makes, then shift the helm a-lee, brace a-back the mizen-top-sail and yards, &c. and sheer the ship nearly right to windward, to complete almost the circle quite round her anchor every tide; which makes it plain that this ship will take up above twice the room that the other will, consequently in that proportion her cable rubs over twice as much ground, and is more liable to be foul of stones, wrecks, or loft anchors, which may greatly hurt it, and it may get round the upper fluke of her own anchor, if the anchor does not turn in the [Page 43] ground as the ship is sheered around it, which probably will be done at the last and first part of the tide, when it runs easy; when, if the wind is moderate, and the bottom a tough clay, it is a great chance but the anchor lies with the stock to wind­ward, by the strain upon it in that direction, as above mention­ed, and the cable may go over the stock when lying flat upon the ground as the ship was backed to leeward of the anchor, and may sweep under the upper fluke as she is sheered to wind­ward again, which makes it evident, that by this practice Capt. Custom is likely to ride with the cable foul of the upper fluke of his anchor: and to suppose the wind and tide so moderate that the ship does not drive, yet the strain upon the upper fluke may cant it towards the ship, and raise the farther stock-arm off the ground; by which, in a clay bottom, the anchor may perhaps lie in that position, so that when the tide slacks, and the ship backs, it will clear the cable of the anchor [...]uke; and as they sheer to windward again, the cable is likely [...] sweep under the anchor stock-arm, that lies canted off the ground. I defy any person to account for the cables so often getting under the anchor stock, which naturally lies flat upon the ground but by this bad practice. Again, suppose Capt. Custom comes to anchor at slack tide, the anchor will naturally lie in the same direction with the ship, and the wind right a-head; when the tide makes, instead of keeping the ship to lee-ward, Capt. Custom sheers and lies to windward of the anchor, as above mentioned; and suppose the wind to change, and come so far abaft the beam, that the ship cannot be backed a-stern of her anchor, but shoots a-head as the tide slacks, in this case, if it is good holding ground, we may reasonably suppose that the anchor has not turned in the ground as the ship has gone round it; the cable will then naturally sweep the upper fluke of the anchor so that Capt. Custom is likely to be a-drift with the lee tide, if it blows fresh, or the tide runs strong, and may carry other ships a drift with him.

There is so much to be said against this bad custom of sheer­ing to windward of the anchor, that I am surprised, how it ever came into practice, as nothing reasonable has appeared to me which could be urged in favor of it; even in respect to work, wear, and to tear, all are greatly against it.

It is but fair that we remark what effect the change of wind [Page 44] might have on Capt. Reason's ship to leeward of her anchor when it made Capt. Custom foul his anchor by being to wind­ward of it, as above mentioned. Suppose then that the wind comes four points abaft the beam, as long as the fore-top-mast stay-sail with the sheet to windward, will draw the right way and the helm hard a-weather, Capt. Reason, to leeward of hi [...] anchor, will never come near to foul it; and suppose by th [...] force of the wind, the ship ranges a-head of her anchor, so that she breaks her sheer, it will be with her head to leeward clea [...] of the anchor, till the tide drives her a-stern of it again; so that whilst a ship by this method can be kept to leeward of the anchor, she should never be sheered to windward of it.

On Mooring Ships.

RULES cannot be fixed to suit all places and all ships; but different methods may be necessary, according to the road, the size of the ship, her draft of water, and how she may be provided with ground-tackle, &c. Where the tide runs very strong, and there is water enough, it is certainly best to moor water-shot, the anchors and cables lying in the same direction with the tide, which can then have but little effect upon them in comparison to what it has when a ship is moored across the tide, where the power of the tide alone upon the moorings is of itself sometimes enough to bring the anchors home: there­fore great ships that have sheet anchors, and are well manned, to clear the hawse when obliged to lie where the tide runs strong, moor with the best and small bower anchors water-shot; but small ships, having only two bower anchors, and but a few hands to clear the hawse, drawing less water, may moor out of the strength of the tide with the small bower and stream anchor, and hawser athwart the tide, and keep the best bower anchor in reserve, as occasion may require. When a ship is to be moored only to wait for a fair wind, the best an­chor and open hawse, should be towards the foul wind quarter; but when a ship is to lie with all winds that may blow, the best anchor and open hawse, should be towards the worst wind that may blow to raise the waves and give the ship a pitching mo­tion, as has already been mentioned, and must leave no more of the smallest mooring within board, than just enough to freshen [Page 45] the hawse on occasion; by which they will hold the longer by having the longer scope, and the hawse will be the easier clear­ed. Where a ship is liable to ground with the ebb, and not to float till the flood tide runs strong, the safest way is to moor across the tide, which lays the ship clear from getting damage upon her own anchors; then it requires to attend and slack the mooring, that her stern may swing over upon the flood, to prevent her girting: and when moored with a small anchor and hawser, the helm should be always shifted to sheer her to­wards the small anchor, to ease the strain upon the small moor­ing, and to lay the principal stress upon the bower anchor and cable, to ride the ship when the tide runs strong. There has been instances of ships mooring in narrow deep rivers where the shores were of loose shilly stones, so as to have no hold of an anchor, that they have backed the anchor with a long board buried in the stones with the edge next the anchor shelv­ing downwards, which has held much faster than an anchor: a bundle of rushes or small faggots buried in the sand, has been sound to hold fast enough to break a cable.

On keeping a clear and open Hawse.

IN roads where ships are liable to be put in great motion by waves, which may make dangerous destruction of the moor­ings with a foul hawse, and the danger and trouble there is in clearing it when the waves run high, make it highly necessary to endeavor to cause the ship to swing the right way each tide, to keep the hawse clear, which the wind will do when it blows across the tide; but when the wind blows right opposite to one tide and in the same direction with the other tide running a­long the shore, then it requires management to make the ship swing with her stern from the shore, to keep the hawse open on both sides. The method of proceeding the first part of the windward tide, when the wind is right a head, is fully described in page 39. To swing a ship the latter part of a windward tide, when the wind is right aft, requires only to put the helm over that way her stern is to go, as in this case to starboard, which will bring the wind on her larboard quarter; if it is little wind the mizen, mizen stay-sail, and mizen top-sail braced up sharp, may be set, to assist the helm as the tide slacks, to swing [Page 46] her the right way to keep the hawse clear, without the trouble of towing with a boat, running out a rope, and a small anchor, &c. which a calm or setting of the tide, may sometimes require to be done.

On Serving Cables.

AS safety may often depend upon this, not only when the waves run high, but in smooth water where the tide runs strong, and by giving the mooring a trembling motion, may chafe them; therefore care should be taken to have them well served, not only in the way of the hawse and cut-water, but so far as to reach below the gripe; for a ship moored water-shot, or at a single anchor, with a windward tide, when it blows so fresh that she ranges about and lies a-head of her anchor, with a tight cable, it may be hurt under her bows and gripe, if not served low enough: therefore it is certainly best to have the cables properly served, ready for mooring, as the time and place the ship is to lie in may require. The best service that I know of to preserve a cable from chaffing in a storm, when the waves run high, is cut from the best part of a tanned horse hide, big enough to wrap two or three times round the cable, which is readily and easily taken off and put on, and much better than plats, which are long and troublesome, to pass and beat about the cable; and after that are liable to become slack as the ca­ble stretches, and rubs backward and forward in the hawse; and when the ship pitches hard, it sometimes separates and makes openings between the parts of the plat, so that the cable may be chafed in these openings, which a leather service is not subject to, being all the length of the hide in one piece. The method of putting it on the cable, is, first to wrap two or three folds of old canvas, the length of the leather service; which if too stiff to put on dry, requires only dipping in water, and beating against any wood, which makes it immediately soft and pliable; then let as many hands as can come at it, wrap it as tight as possible on the old canvas round the cable, tying it tight and smooth on, with sinet, or three yarn nettles made for that purpose, greasing them and the service very well before veering it into the hawse-hole. I would advise to avoid a practice sometimes made use of on this occasion, that is, tak­ing a timber hitch with some nettles upon the canvas round the [Page 47] cable, then wrapping the leather service and the nettles round the cable, together, which raises the leather in the place of those nettles, where it will soon chafe through.

How the weakest Moorings may be best applied to help a Ship to ride out a Storm.

IN a dangerous situation, all practicable hints, that may contribute any thing towards safety, deserve notice; and it may often happen, that the small bower cable may be too much wore, or the small moorings known to be too weak to bear the strain of the ship to ride out the storm, when the anchor at the best cable is in danger or expected to come home; in this case I would recommend endeavoring to make the weak moorings serve as a backing to the best anchor and cable, contriving a traveller (as it may properly be called) of sufficient rope to go slack round the best cable, without the hawse, well se­cured with rolling hitches seized, &c. to the weak moorings that may be veered away, to let go as occasion may require; or, if short of rope to make a proper traveller, a stopper may be put on with out the hawse, till the end of the small moorings is put round the best cable with a long bowline knot, that will slide along the best cable, till it comes to the best anchor stock, which may prove such a sure backing to it, as to prevent its coming home; [...]o that by this means, there is a much better chance to ride out the storm by the best cable, singly, than to run the risk of either anchor coming home, to bring them both a-head together, by which one cable is apt to get foul of the other anchor, and to get so entangled as to make the anchors come home, or cut that cable which is foul of the anchor, if the ship has a pitching motion. But it must be confessed, that this, as well as all other uncommon methods, requires judge­ment to contrive, and resolution to put the design speedily in practice, as the occasion and necessity may require to preserve the whole, when safety depends upon the riding out a storm.

On Unmooring a Ship.

THERE is little to be said on this subject, as it may be said to be already discussed, on getting under way in different situ­ations; [Page 48] if the ship is in a clear roomy place, either anchor may be taken up first, by veering to it, or weighed with a boat, &c.

On Heaving the Hand Lead.

THE situation of America is such, that no one can be more useful on board an American vessel than a good lead's-man. The great extent of the American coast, with the many large bays and rivers, give her seamen sufficient practice in this use­ful part of seamanship.

Rules to be observed by a Lead's-Man.

WHEN first ordered to the lead, take care that the inward end of the line be made fast to prevent losing it. 2. That the lead and line may run clear, and run fair to hand, take them out before that shroud next to your fore most hand where you stand to heave. 3. The first cast of the lead heave only five or six fathoms of line, which prevents the lead being over hove, and readily makes known that the ship is not in im­mediate danger, when no ground is found at that depth; and it is an easy way to clear the line for a deeper cast the next heave, if the occasion requires it. 4. When sounding in less than five fathoms water, or when there happens a sudden alter­ation of less water, heave the lead as fast as possible, and speak out the soundings briskly, with a loud voice, and do not sing them out, which takes so much time that the ship will be apt to ground before the soundings are well heard. The singing out the soundings with a loud voice is of great service when a number of ships are sailing together; for by hearing each oth­er's soundings, they will be more able to keep in the best wa­ter; it also gives the commander an opportunity of going be­low and comparing the soundings made, with those laid down in the chart, or instructions for the place, as he will hear the depth of the water sung out whilst he is below.

On Sounding with the Deep-Sea Lead.

IT is found from experience that the best size for a deep-sea lead is fifteen pounds weight, and with a line rather smaller [Page 49] than common, on a reel, in beckets kept for that purpose, like a log-reel; that the lead may sink the faster, there should be few and small marks, as the hand lead and line will get sound­ings at any time in ten fathom water; the deep-sea line need only to be marked from ten to seventeen fathom, as common, and from twenty upwards with knots as small as those of the log-line. This line requires various methods of heaving it, ac­cording to the depth of water expected, and the ship's head or lee way at the time the lead is to be hove. When a ship is sailing right an end without much lee way, if soundings cannot be got, by heaving from the cat-heat or sprit-sail-yard, a man must carry the bight of the line to the jib-boom end, and with a tight line swing the lead forward, when a man gives it all the force he can from the sprit-sail-yard; this method, well man­aged, will heave the lead the farthest it can be done to get sounding without bringing the ship to.

On bringing a Ship to, to Sound.

THE difficulty of getting true sounding in a gale of wind, increases in proportion to the depth of water, and the violence of the wind and waves. The best method I know of, is to pass the lead from the weather quarter, round the stern to lee-ward, without all, to the fore part of the quarter-deck; and a man to carry the bight of the line to the lee main yard-arm, which is to be laid square when the helm is put a-lee, to bring the ship to; and when the ship begins to shoot to windward by her head-way, then the lead is to be swung right to leeward from the deck, whilst the man at the yard-arm, with a tight line, swings it as far as possible to leeward of the ship, which gains to windward of the lead whilst the head-way continues, and then runs her a-stern up to the wind by the stern-way, backs near to where the lead was hove, by which means, as before mentioned in box-hauling, a great deal of line may be [...] out nearly up and down; and the lead being armed with tallow, makes it certain whether it has struck the bottom or not, and if it has, shews what sort of a bottom there [...]

On Look-out.

A GOOD look-out may justly be said to contribute more than any thing towards safety, not only from shores and shoals, &c. but from ships running on board each other at sea, which often has, and may prove fatal to many by neglecting it; there­fore the utmost care should be taken, that this duty is not done in a careless manner; and the transgressors should be punish­ed; for by their neglect, the vessel, cargo, and all the crew of his employer, as well as that of another, may be totally lost. The man that is to look out should never sit or stand still, but keep continually walking, for it is likely a man may sleep sitting, and possibly he may standing, when much fa­tigued; but it is impossible for him to sleep when walking the deck; and to make this duty easier and that it may be well done, it should be taken spell and spell, according to the num­ber of the watch that can be trusted, and as circumstances may require. When drawing near to any danger, where safety may depend entirely on a good look-out, if the weather permits, and the ship is manageable, and [...] work under her top-sails with the main and fore-sails in the brails, it gives a fair oppor­tunity to the officer, as well as all others upon deck, to look round them, to fee any dangers that may appear; the little difference thus made in a ship's sailing, is not to be compared to the advantage given for safety, or preventing damage on such occasions. It is a bad practice to punish or abuse a sailor for mistaking a cloud for land when looking out; for the ap­pearances are so much alike, that sometimes it is difficult to distinguish whether it is land or a cloud, until you may be in danger either from rocks or shoals, especially when the land is covered with a cloud, as is often the case; therefore I would recommend that the men should be encouraged with some tri­fling reward to make known every appearance of land when it proves to be such, but never abused if the appearance should prove to be nothing but a cloud. On looking out for [...] or rocks, the looker-out should be encouraged to make known every the least change in the appearance of the water; a seem­ing change should not be neglected, though it often is occa­sioned by the reflection of the clouds; but as one man may be mistaken, the opinion of all should be taken on the appear­ance, [Page 51] all riplings, broken water, or uncommon smooth wa­ter, when the sea is rough, should be strictly noticed, as they may prove the greatest dangers. In clear weather and a smooth sea, shoals may be seen from the mast-head, provided you look from the sun; for the reflection of the sun on the water casts such a glare, that it blinds the eyes, and the beams of the sun when passing through the water, are in such a direction that they prevent the image of the bottom rising to view, or the sight penetrating to the object as it is generally thought, when looking towards the sun.

On making Passages.

IN going out of a bar-harbor with an ebb tide and high sea on the bar, which might endanger the ship striking by pitch­ing, some have passed over with safety, by bringing to as soon as they came to the bar, and driving broadside to the waves over the bar, which prevented the ship striking. Another way which has been practiced with success, is to have every thing ready, as soon as the ship is up with the bar, ware short around and let her drift stern foremost over, keeping the sails all furled (except such as were set to bring the ship to the bar) and the yards braced up sharp, until clear of the bar, then clapping the helm hard a-starboard or port, as the best slant may be made, and the tide checking the ship under the lee bow helps her to get to windward. If the ship in her way to sea, requires a qualified pilot who is liable to be called to an account for any misfortune, it is but reasonable that he should be obeyed, and consulted by the ship's officers, and that they should see all things necessary, both men and mate­rials be ready to proceed in proper time; otherwise the pilot may justly refuse to take charge of the ship. For want of these necessaries, many bad accidents have happened. If the chan­nels are narrow, with swashes joining them, that occasions cross tides amongst shoals which are under water, all possible pains should be taken to get two objects for leading marks that lie nearly in the same direction with the channel, which are much better than any single mark, buoy, or beacon, to­wards which single mark, a ship may be kept stemming, and [Page 52] may seem to go in a fair way to it; yet by the tide or lee-way, may be carried insensibly out of the channel on shore, which has often occasioned great damage and loss, for want of being strictly noticed and guarded against, by observing the true bearings by the compass, or the lead and its stray line, how the ship goes over the ground different from what she stems. If a ship should ground and is liable to take a great heel and may strain as the tide leaves her, the top-masts should be struck, that they may come easily down whilst she conti­nues upright, and she should be eased of all top-hamper, or it should be laid as low down as possible, and when she begins to take her heel, the main and fore yards may be used for shoars, being lashed to the chain-plates, scuppers, &c. by which not only their weight is taken off the ship, but may support her from straining; and when necessity require it, the spare booms may be used as shoars, and to lash iron crows with the sharp end below the end of each shoar, may be a means to keep the lower ends fast to the ground.

We will now suppose the ship to be clear of all shoals, the pilot dismissed, and the course to be steered, ordered; the compasses should be examined whether they traverse freely, and should be compared with each other, how they agree both in and out of the binacle; which should be carefully cleared of all iron; and if the commander is employed about any thing else, a proper officer should be appointed to attend to the course steered, and the soundings of the lead, if it is kept going, to prevent the ship being run on shore by a bad helm's-man be­fore he has been discovered to be such, and the fault laid to the compass; this I have known to be the case in going along the coast of America when the ship has been thought to be some leagues from land, the night very dark. Whilst one officer takes care of the ship's course, &c. the other officers with the whole crew, according to their stations, should be properly em­ployed in clearing and preparing the ship to contend with the turbulent waves of the sea, to prevent and guard as much as possible, against the bad and fatal consequences which have sometimes happened from shipping water before things were properly secured. As soon as things are set to rights the watch should be chosen and set.

On Choosing the Watches.

THE crew as far as they are known to be good and bad, should be equally divided, and they should be told by the com­mander, that the safety, ease, and success of the whole depends chiefly on every one doing, or getting the necessary duty done, with watchfulness, care, and diligence, according to their dif­ferent stations, which he is in duty bound strictly to look after, and treat each of them as their merit or demerit deserves. The watch upon deck have upon them the important charge, not only of the safety of the ship and their own lives, but the lives of all on board; therefore any neglect of duty by the watch up­on deck, and especially in keeping a good look-out, should be resented by all the rest of the crew: the watch below should lie down with such clothes on, as to be ready to turn out di­rectly, when all hands are called, which may be to save the whole from immediate destruction; these declarations serve to reconcile the crew in general to that strict discipline which may be absolutely necessary to establish at the beginning of a voyage, and especially when passing through dangerous narrow seas. The commanding officer of the watch should not in my opinion be put under the too common restriction of being obliged to wait for the approbation or orders of the captain, when any unexpected great danger appears to be very nigh; but it should be recommended to him to give such orders as in his judgment he may think the immediate necessity for safety requires, to avoid the nearest danger, so as to give time to call on the captain to direct what is best to be done afterwards.

On Shaping a Course and Navigating through dangerous narrow Seas or Straits, where Tides or Currents run strong.

IN seas where shoals lie interspersed at a distance from land, and where tides and currents run so strong as may greatly al­ter both the intended course and distance, which has occasion­ed many fatal losses; no pains should be spared in shaping the course, to calculate how the intended course and distance is to be made good; for it is well known that a strong current has the same effect upon ships at sea, tho' it may not be so visible, as in a river where it is plain to be perceived, for which reason [Page 54] the setting and strength of the current, as near as can be got, should be reckoned in the calculation, and set down in the log­book as a course and distance in keeping the ships way, the same as the log, which ought to be hove every hour and re­marked, and this is not too often, because in that time there may be great alterations in the ship's way as well as the cur­rent. For these reasons, as well as on other important occa­sions, every prudent, diligent officer, should endeavor to get all the help be can come at from tide-cables, books, charts, &c. to make himself as well acquainted as possible with the tides, and should take all favorable opportunities to try and remark the ebbing and flowing, setting and strength of the tides as well as currents, that may be found in their track of navigation, in or­der to form a judgment how to allow and reckon them as a course, and distance, in an account of the ship's way, as above recommended; by this it will certainly help him to come much nearer the designed course and distance than if no notice was taken of them; but the swiftness of the tide varies with its height, and such unexpected alterations are often made by tides or currents in the course of a long winter's night that a ship is often found on one side of the channel when she was thought to be on the other; the like happens in thick hazy weather; therefore the anchors and cables should be kept as ready as possible on these occasions. If the place you have fallen in with, cannot be known by its appearance, take the bearings, and extent of it each way by the compass, depth of water, &c. and compare them with the chart of the place: this is the readiest and most likely means to find where you are, which may be of the utmost consequence in proceeding forward or retreating, by this fresh departure being right; for there have been many losses by one place being taken for another.

The Difference between Theory and Practice of Navigation.

AFTER the departure from land is taken, then begins what we call the art of navigation; which by mathematical rules gives the true course and distance from one place to another, only by their latitudes and longitudes being laid down; to re­duce the various traverses a ship often makes in twenty-four hours into one course and distance, and find the latitude and [Page 55] longitude the ship is in every day at noon; which by theory can be made to answer to the greatest nicety; so that the learn­er at school, can keep a reckoning of a long run and make the designed land-fall agree to a mile with his account of the ship's way; but in practice it is sound from experience, that it can­not be done so as to be solely relied upon, even by seamen of the greatest capacities, whose chief dependance, as before no­ticed, must be therefore, on lead, latitude, and a good look-out. The difference between the theory and practice of na­vigation, arises from the defects in the methods and instru­ments which we use in steering, and in the measuring and mark­ing down the ship's way, and also in not making proper allowances for bad steering, lee-way, ship's drift, or bearing away from the true course in squalls, variation of the compass and tides or currents; all which cannot be brought exactly to a regular account▪ but are liable to errors, which depend much upon mens' different judgments in correcting them; therefore each of these articles deserve to be particularly noticed, as they occasion not only the above difference, but the difference of one ship's reckoning from another on the same passage, and also one man's reckoning from another in the same ship.

On Steering in general.

THE difference between good and bad steering is of such consequence to navigation, that it deserves particular regard; because good steering not only gives nearly the true course as steered by the compass, but the ship sails much faster and far­ther in the same time, and with much more ease to both the helm's-man and the ship, in a gale of wind with high waves; for whatever a ship goes from her straight course, she shortens her distance so much, and requires more helm, which works and makes both ship and helm's-man very uneasy; and when carrying a press of sail there is great danger of the ship being broached to, which may prove fatal to the whole; therefore all hints or helps, and every thing that good steering depends upon, should be [...]de as easy and plain as possible for the helm's-man in a dark night, when he has nothing to steer by but the com­pass, on the goodness of which he entirely depends; therefore this most noble instrument should be first spoken of.

On Ships Compasses.

WHERE there is so much property, and what is of much more consequence, so many lives depending on the goodness of compasses, I have been surprized and vexed to hear people prefer an indifferent compass to a good one meerly from its be­ing cheaper. It is well known that in a heavy sea the common compasses have so much motion that they are scarcely of any service, whilst Dr. Knight's best improved steering and azi­muth compasses I have found from experience to be in com­parison quite steady; the needle which governs this card is a strong artificial magnet of itself, and having an agate socket traverses upon a polished steel center-pin, the ship's head can­not move the least degree to one side or the other, but these compasses instantaneously shew the motion, by which much bet­ter and safer steerage may be made, than with the common compasses, which are made very slight and imperfect, with nee­dles that contain very little magnetic power, and have only rough, soft brass [...]ockets, and center-pins, which soon blunt, and are liable to be put out of order so as to prevent the card from traversing freely in smooth water▪ by which bad quality a ship may move a great way from her course before it can be perceived by a bad compass, which may occasion dangerous steerage in spite of the best helms-man; therefore the best of compasses should be always allowed, as the difference between good and bad will b [...] but a little in the expence of a ship's out-fit. Compasses on the same construction as Dr. Knight's may be made in America as accurately as in Great-Britain:

On the Steering Wheel.

THE great advantages experienced from steering a ship with this excellent machine, has occasioned it to become more and more in use; even small ships that have their tillers upon deck, frequently now steer with a wheel, which gives the helm's-man an additional power to command, and move the helm at pleasure from side to side whilst he stands firm on [...] spot, that he may keep his eyes fixed on any mark a-head, or on the com­pass, and observe to a great nicety the ship's motions or ten­dency to go from her course, so that she may be steered steadi­er, [Page 57] and confined nearer to her true course, by the wheel than by the tiller, which the helm's-man must go along with from side to side, as the ship may require, that he cannot discern her motions so nioely, nor has he equal power to move the helm as occasion requires. As the advantage of wheels is so great, they deserve the more pains to be taken to have them made as perfect as possible: the barrel of the wheel should be exactly proportioned to the size of the ship, that either three or five turns of the wheel-rope may be just long enough, so as to lose neither power nor time, in moving the helm three points of the compass each way, from the direction of the keel, as mentioned in directions on the helm; and as most wheels have eight spokes (and some large ships have nine or ten) the handle part of each spoke should be marked, so as they may be distinctly known by feeling as they pass through the helm's-man's hands, the midship spoke where the wheel rope is nailed, marked with a rope-yarn as in common, and the three or four spokes on each side I, II, III, or IIII notches cut with a knife, suppose on the fore side of the wheel, on the starboard side, and on the after side of the wheel on the larboard side; the half-turn spoke, if there is one, to be plain without any mark: by which marks it may be readily known wh [...], or how far the helm is on either side, though the tiller is below out of sight, this gives the helm's-man the liberty to use his eyes entirely in observing the ship's motions, [...]o steer her to the greatest advantage.

On Steering a Course.

IT is certainly the duty of the officer of the watch, to use his▪ utmost endeavours to get the ship steered as near as possi­ble to the course that is ordered; and when the ship is perceiv­ed to be going exactly her course by the compass, the helm's-man should be advised to look and find a mark a-head, that will [...] alter fast, to steer by, and only to look at the compass [...] and then, as occasion may require, to observe whether the mark [...] so fast [...] to make it necessary to find out another that will answer nearer to the course; for it is well known [...] a learner will steer a ship to a greater nicety by a mark a-head, than a good helm's-man can do without a mark by the compass.

[Page 58] A good helm's-man, when a ship is difficult to be steer­ed, at taking the helm, first observes how it lies, then looks with a sharp eye which way the ship is inclined to go from her course, and moves the helm with a brisk motion far enough to stop her that way, and feels by the stress upon the rudder ceasing (which feeling ought always to be noticed, as well as any alteration to the eye) when it is a proper time to ease the helm to prevent her going on the other side of her course; for a ship is no sooner stopt by the helm from going to one hand than she will be inclinable to go to the other hand, if the helm remain in that place; therefore he keeps moving the helm with a brisk motion as far as it is found necessary to con­fine her course, and by feeling the marked spokes of the wheel as they come into his hands, soon perceives how much helm, and how far she requires it each way, to command and steer her steadily along with the least helm, and trouble to himself. A bad helm's-man, instead of endeavouring to confine the ship to her course by moving the helm each way as above mention­ed, commonly lets the helm lie until he fees the ship has got on one side of her course, then moves so far as to bring her to her course again before he offers to stop or meet her with it, and then she gets on the other side of her course, so as to require a great deal of helm both ways; by which the ship is steered but little forward, but kept yawing about from one side of her course to the other, which makes both course and distance very uncertain, and works the bad helm's-man as he works the ship, from side to side, which makes both ve­ry uneasy; and if the waves run high, when carrying a press of sail large, by bad steering there is great danger of broach­ing to; therefore, none but the best helm's-men should be permitted to steer at such times.

On Suiting a Ship with Sail that she may Steer well.

WHEN it is difficult to steer a ship, her officers should take care that her sails are properly trimmed▪ and that she is not over pressed with sail and especially after sail, which may make her so ungovernable, as to put it out of the pow­er of the best helm's-man to steer her with all the helm that can be given her, therefore the helm's-man should always be [Page 59] told to acquaint the officer of the watch when the ship gripes so hard that the helm hard a-weather or hard over each way will not command her, that the sails may be better trimmed, or after sail taken in, or more head sail set, as occasion may require.

On Steering upon a Wind in the open Sea.

IN variable winds when a ship has got sea room, clear of the land, I have thought it a wrong practice, to steer upon a wind by the vanes and sails just touching full, which seldom gives a direct course, but varies as the ship comes to, and falls off, which makes both course and distance the more uncer­tain; therefore, a course should be ordered to a point, or half a point of the compass, as the wind would admit of, to steer the ship with a full sail and only look at the vanes to see if the wind alters, that the course may be altered accordingly; by this means a truer course as well as distance, and more distance may be got; especially if the ship lies aslant towards her course, which makes it the more necessary, as the ship will sail the faster, and make less lee-way, and this last should be well considered, because the ship's real course by the com­pass, depends much upon making a proper allowance for her lee-way.

On making Allowance for Lee-Way.

THIS in a most inconsistent manner, is generally left for twenty-four hours, to the judgment and memories of the different navigators who probably are below asleep, or their attention taken up with other things great part of the time; this therefore must make the allowance for lee-way uncertain, as it is liable to vary, and be more or less every hour, as the wind may happen to vary, blow less or more, or the waves run higher or lower, more a-head or a-stern of the ship, and as she has been steered upon a wind, though under the same sail, and differs greatly from any school-boy's rules that can be proposed of allowing more or less lee-way, according to the sail a ship can carry; for it is well known that two ships may be in company with equal sail set, when one, by her con­struction [Page 60] and trim, may not make half so much lee-way as the other. This defective and uncertain manner of making allowance for lee-way, in my opinion, is one of the principal causes and reasons why the reckonings in the same ship should differ so much from each other, when the courses and distan­ces that the ship's way is reckoned from, are all taken from the same log-book, which if no mistake be made in calculations, should make them all nearly agree. What in my opinion would contribute greatly to lessen this defective part of navi­gation, is to have a quarter of a circle of sheet-lead divid­ed so as to have the eight points of the compass nailed up­on each quarter, with one side parallel to the keel, and the other to the beam, as they have in most capital ships, by which the ship's wake, or drift, that she goes to lee-ward of what she stems by the compass, may be set to a suffi­cient nicety upon both tacks, by the officer of the watch, who should make the allowance, and set down the real course, or drift, made by the compass every hour, which by this means will certainly come much nearer to the true course than when left without any other rule, to different people's memories, and judgments, as above mentioned. Here I think it proper to remark as the quarter of circles of lead just men­tioned, are commonly made, and cut from a whole circle about six inches diameter, with the thirty-two points of the compass marked out in straight lines from the center, the other two quarters should be nailed on each side of the barricado, or fore-part of the quarter-deck pointing on each bow before the beam, and those abaft, point abaft the beam, so that any ob­jects, such as ships, points of land, shoals, buoys or beacons, may be readily set by these quarters of circles, to know how far they are before, or abaft the beam, and by observing how the ship stems by the compass at the same time, the bearing and alteration of bearings, may be easily and readily taken; which has been often found to be of great service.

On Measuring the Ship's Way by the Log.

THIS method defective as it is, must be made the most of, until a better is brought into practice. The learned have with much seeming reason, recommended to us to have our [Page 61] log-lines marked fifty feet to a knot, and the glass to measure thirty seconds of time, which are exactly one hundred and twentieth part of a geographical mile, and of an hour, and must be allowed to agree better with exact calculation than our common practice of having but forty-two feet of line to a glass of twenty-eight seconds of time, which line is four feet eight inches, or about a ninth part short of the above proportions; yet in our practice this is sound from long experience to mea­sure very well a geographical or sea mile of sixty to a degree; which miles, in my opinion, should become general, and be used in the scale of all our sea maps, instead of the English sta­tute mile, which is a seventh part less; by which difference the unlearned may be deceived. Common practice can only be proved to be right by frequent fair trials. A ship going from London had her line marked at forty-two feet, and her glasses twenty-eight seconds, as usual, till they were disappointed in their expected land-fall, according to their reckonings; the Capt. then asked how the log-line was marked, and being told forty-two feet, he ordered the line to be altered to eight fathoms a knot and declared that the ship was one-eighth of her longi­tude short, by the line being marked seven fathoms instead of eight to the knot, and so it proved; but on their return, by the line being so marked, the ship was so far a-head of their reckoning as had nearly proved fatal to them, as they were car­rying all possible sail in thick hazy weather, when by the change in the color of the water they conceived they were within sound­ings, and it proved so, and they found themselves far up the king's channel, and had narrowly escaped running on shore with all sail set. This with many other instances of the ship's out­running the reckoning when the line is thus marked, induces me to recommend forty-two feet to twenty-eight seconds ra­ther than any other, as it is generally practised in the East-India trade, where there is so much longitude, and has been found to answer best, and it must be confessed that if there is an error it is on the safe side; for it is much better that the reckoning should be a-head of the ship than the ship a head of the reckon­ing which may prove fatal to vessel and crew. The readiest and surest way to mark and try the log-line, is to have the whole length of a half knot (twenty-one feet) measured and marked straight along the deck, and to have the knots put into the [Page 62] line so as they may be easily shifted backwards and forwards, as the stretching and shrinking of the line often requires; but be­fore this is done, the half minute glass should be tried, whether it runs exactly twenty-eight seconds, that if it is found to run more or less, the line should be marked longer or shorter ac­cording to these proportions, as twenty-eight to forty-two so is a second or two more or less, to the distance required, and this may be done sufficiently near by the scale and compass. And the glasses may be tried by a musket ball fastened to a thread held steadily in one hand between the finger and thumb exact­ly twenty-nine inches from the ball, which must be swung by the other hand and continued swinging more than thirty times, by which is found from frequent experience that each swing measures a second of time sufficiently near for this purpose, even when the ship has some motion from the waves. But the best instrument for this purpose, as well as many other useful and curious purposes at sea, is a watch or time keeper, that shews seconds which will answer equally well in a storm when the waves run high, as in smooth water; therefore every officer that has the charge of navigating a ship, should have one of the best he can afford to buy. It is a sufficient trial for the quarter minute glass, if it runs out exactly twice to the half minute glass's once. But after all one's care to find out exact propor­tions, by which to get the true distance run, the whole de­pends chiefly on those who heave the log and hold the glass, neither of which should be done by careless people; especially when the ship sails so fast as to require to use the quarter min­ute glass, which will double all errors: therefore this glass should be as seldom used as possible. The learned as before mentioned have very justly recommended to have the line that is run out above the knots, set down in fathoms of five feet each, being the tenth part of their fifty feet knots, the same ex­act rule may be easily used, only by having a measure of four feet two and an half inches, marked on the rail, on each quarter where the log is hove, that will measure tenths of a mile from the forty-two feet knots, which must be allowed will come much nearer the true distance, and agree much better to the lengths of miles in the traverse tables, than that old and bad practice of setting down nothing less than the half knots, or that more exact method of marking down to fathoms of six [Page 63] feet, and these tenths of a knot above or under the knot or half knot, might be very easily measured by the officer that heaves the log. But after all the exactest rules, the most essential me­thod in my opinion to try what dependance can be put upon the log, and those that heave it is, if opportunity permits, clear of tides or currents, after a good observation had for the lati­tude to allow for the variation and steer due north or south till a second observation, if it can be done in a favorable time, which will give the truest real distance that can be got at sea to compare with the log.

On Heaving and Marking down the Log only once in Two Hours.

IT surprises me to find this old bad practice still continued in many capital merchant ships; because it makes the una­voidable errors in getting the true course and distance not only greater, but doubles them in working the day's work and marks down not nearer than half knots of the odd line, which must still increase the errors of the distance, if we suppose two fa­thom of odd line is omitted to be set down every time the log is hove, this makes a difference of near seven miles in twenty-four hours. This practice lies under another disadvantage, which is that of not affording sufficient room to set down and explain the necessary remarks and occurrences, which often happen in the twenty-four hours.

On Heaving and Marking down the Log every Hour.

THIS practice compared with that above, has many advan­tages attending it. Those unavoidable errors arrising from the wind and weather varying, and the ship sailing faster or slower, than when the log is hove, must be lessened one half, and the odd line that is run out, marked down in fathoms, or tenths of a knot, every hour, must certainly come much nearer the true course and distance, than the above old me­thod. But it must be allowed, that they who have been accus­tomed to the old method, may be a little perplexed in work­ing a day's work and reckoning those odd fathoms or tenths of a knot, that are left over and above the miles the ship has gone on any one course, and which is under no fixed rule; but when [Page 64] they amount to above half a knot let them allow a mile, and when under half a knot omit them as fractions to be left as ma­ny other material things must be to the judgment and industry of the navigator, on which depends chiefly all comparative good reckonings. As to the difference of trouble in this me­thod, it should not be mentioned, if it is allowed to contribute to lessen the defects of navigation, which it certainly does, and therefore should become general. I will take the liberty to shew in a day's work the manner of keeping a ship's way at sea ac­cording to the foregoing instructions, which is generally prac­ticed in the English East-Indiamen; so that those who have been used to the old method, may compare and judge for themselves.

• Course allowed S. 28 deg. W. 110 miles.
• Southing 97 miles, Welling 52.
• Latitude observed, 48. 45 N.
• By account, 48. 30 N.
• Meridian distance, 1. 37 W
• Longitude in 9. 1 W

[Page 65] By this method the remarks of each watch may be brief­ly set down in the margin; so that all that is most mate­rial may be fully described at filling up the log-book or jour­nal for the day, only leaving room at bottom for the ship's course and distance, and the latitude and longitude she is reck­oned to be in at noon; which will prove much better for many reasons than the method of setting down the difference of lon­gitude, to avoid exposing how much the longitude reckoned to be may be wrong, which, by the by, can be no disgrace to a man when he does his best. It is likewise necessary to draw the track of each day, from one latitude and longitude to the other, with a black lead pencil on the general chart; to com­pare the ship's situation with the nearest land or shoals, to prevent as much as possible being surprised by unexpected dangers.

On a Ship in the open Ocean.

AFTER a good look-out, the principal dangers now to contend with, are violent winds and waves; for which the ship should be prepared, and every thing secured and made as snug as possible, according to the weather that may be expected, and as the length of the run may require; the cables may be unbent, the hawse-holes plugged up if they lie low, and the bower anchors stowed somewhere within board; which is not only a great ease to the ship, but may make her sail faster, and may prevent the foot of the fore-sail from chaffing against the upper arms of the stocks, and the lower arms from plung­ing into the water, which may affect both the ship's way and steerage. All top-hamper that is now unnecessary aloft should be got down and stowed below, such as top-ropes, top-blocks, mauls, runners and tackles, that can be spared, which may ease the masts, and prevent a great deal of chaffing among the rigging.

On Turning to Windward in the open Ocean.

IN variable winds, when a ship will sail aslant stemming near her intended course, it is natural to stand upon that tack as long as circumstances will admit; because the wind may vary to make a slant on the other tack, by which a ship may [Page 66] be got slanting forward on her way, then it may be worth while to carry a pressing sail if it blows fresh, and steer by the compass a little from the wind, which may greatly contribute to shorten the passage; but when the wind blows strong, and the waves run high, near to a point of the intended course, that nothing of a slant can be made on either tack, then it may be deemed very wrong to press and strain a ship with any more sail than to make her rise and fall easy with the waves; for a little time with a favorable wind will fetch up what may be lost by taking in sail in time, to give ease to the ship, masts, &c.

On Taking in Sails to save them, and give Ease to a Ship sailing upon a Wind in a Storm.

ON these occasions, the climate, season of the year, fre­quency of the wind blowing strong in one quarter, and the appearance of the good or bad weather, that may be expect­ed, with all other circumstances of the ship, men and mate­rials should be considered, to form a judgment how to act when it comes to blow so fresh that the top-sails cannot be carried without being reefed; and then if the top-gallant-yards are up, whether it may not be necessary to get them down and strike the top-gallant-masts if they go up abaft the top-mast, as has been recommended above, and especially if it is at the beginning of a long winter's night, in which time both wind and waves may be increased to a violent degree before morning, which may make the ship pitch and roll so as greatly to strain every thing, and make it dangerous for the people to get them down at such times. If the wind and weather should prove favorable, they may be easily got up again in the morning. By this practice at the first of the voyage in smooth water, the people will learn to be ex­pert in getting them down or up, as occasion may re­quire. As the wind and waves increase, a fast sailing ship upon a wind, when pressed with sail (especially head sail) will be plunged deep into the sea, to a dangerous degree. Let us suppose a ship brought to close reefed top-sails, the top-gallant-yards and masts down, and every thing made snug according to the appearance of such wind and weather as may be expected; it has been found from experience that [Page 67] getting the sprit-sail yard and jib-boom in upon deck when beating against the wind blowing very fresh, is an advantage as well in helping the ship as in giving her great ease. Let us suppose the gale to increase, so that the top-sails must be taken in, in doing of which they are very liable to be split and blown to pieces if proper management is not used to preserve them.

On Taking in Top-sails upon a Wind when it blows Strong.

THE best method is first to station the people to advantage, according to their strength, and the dependance that may be put on them; man well and haul tight the lee clew, and bunt­lines, then let go the bowline and lee brace, man the weather braces, and when all ready let fly the lee sheet, and brace the sail a-back to the weather shrouds whilst clewing up, which will keep it quiet from flapping till it is handed.

On Taking in the Courses upon a Wind in a Storm.

WHEN the main-sail or fore-sail is to be either reefed or handed, it is certainly the best method for the safety and ease of the men, the sail and the ship, first to lower down the yard, keeping it level with the lee lift, to prevent the lee yard-arm from plunging into the sea; and if but weakly manned, haul up the weather clew-garnet first with the sail full, then station the people to the best advantage, as above mentioned, let go the weather bowline and lee brace, that as soon as the lee sheet is let fly, the sail may be braced a-back to keep it from flap­ping, that it may be hauled up with safety at more leisure, and the yard being down, must contribute greatly to prevent those fatal accidents that have often happened from a weight of men reefing or handing these sails with the yard aloft, when the ship may be laboring with such violent and quick motions that it may be difficult for the men to hold themselves fast. And the yard being down gives equal advantage in setting the sails again after being reefed, &c. for the tacks may be safer and easier got down, and the sheets hauled close aft, and the yards swayed up afterwards.

On Brailing up the Mizen.

EVEN this requires management at times, when the only method to stay the sail, and prevent its flapping, that it may be furled easily, is to man well and haul up the brails only, and only take in the slack of the weather brails till the lee ones are close up; for if the weather brails are too much hauled upon, it will fill the sail so full of wind as to prevent its being furled.

On Taking in the Fore, Main, and Mizen Stay-sails.

THESE require only to be hauled briskly down, that they may be furled and stowed away.

On Taking in the Top-sails, Main-sail, or Fore-sail, when Sail­ing large, or before the Wind in a Storm.

WHEN the wind is on either quarter, the lee sheet should be first clewed up, then the yard pointed to the wind, and the buntlines, &c. hauled as much as possible before the weather sheet is let go, if the sail cannot be backed, the wind blowing nearly along the yard, will preserve the sail greatly from flap­ping so as it would do if the yard was let to lie square to the wind. When the wind is right aft one sheet should be clew­ed up first, then with the brace on the other side, the yard should be braced up as sharp as possible, haul up the bunt and leech lines as much as they can be, before the other sheet is let go; and if to save the sail it be required, and things will admit that the ship could be steered with the yard pointing to the wind for a little while, it may contribute greatly to save and get the sail secured. But on all such occasions as these, and especially in the night when the word of command cannot be heard, nor can the people see or be seen by their officers, so as to be directed by any means, to get the duty done as it ought to be, the only method i [...] to muster the people all toge­ther first, and make known what and how the thing is intend­ed to be done, and station them accordingly, that none may plead ignorance in excuse for any mismanagement that may happen.

On Taking in the Fore-sail in Time of Waring.

WHEN a ship will not bear to carry her courses, it is cer­tainly the best practice, first, to secure and hand the main-sail, as the fore-sail may be carried a great deal longer, and with the mizen, and main stay-sails, a ship may be steered close to the wind, so as to make her tolerable easy and lively in the sea, and especially when beating to windward in narrow seas, these are the most suitable sails a ship can be under at such times; because she may be easier and readier wared, and when the storm increases, that the ship will not bear to carry her fore-sail, it may be taken in with great ad­vantage in time of waring, by the above rules. After the people are got together, and the intended method of pro­ceeding made known to them all, as soon as the ship is perceived to begin to ware, the yard being braced up sharp, the tack and bowline may be let go, and the weather clew-gar­net hauled up, and when the ship is near before the wind, the bunt and leach lines and the other clew-garnet may be hauled up, and if the situation admits, and the occasion require it, the ship may be steered with the wind on the quarter till the sail is se­cured.

On Laying a Ship to in a Storm.

THIS is intended as much as possible, to preserve a ship from the effects of violent wind and waves, by endeavoring to stea­dy her from laboring, and make her rise and fall with the waves as lively and easy in the sea as possible; and the best method for doing this, which I can recommend, not only from my own experience but that of many able seamen, is for the ship to be under the lower stay-sails with the mizen reefed and ba­lanced, &c. and the yards braced full and not the common me­thod of laying a ship to, under a reefed or whole main-sail with the foresail a-back in the brails.

On Laying to, under a Main-Sail, with the Fore-Sails a-back in the Brails.

THAT this method is far from being the best to answer the [Page 70] above-mentioned purposes, may be proved from reason as well as from experience; for a ship laid to in this manner, with some sails full, and some a-back, and the helm made fast a-lee as customary, instead of keeping her bow to the waves and wind, which only can keep her easy in the sea, she will be constantly coming to the wind, so as to shake the weather leach of the main-sail by her head-way the fore-sail being a-back, and the power of the waves so much a-head, soon give the ship great stern-way and the helm being a-lee as before mentioned, makes her fall round off four or five points from the wind, which causes the ship to labor and strain in proportion as she comes to, and falls off from the wind, and also exposes those flat and weakest parts, the counter, stern, quarter, and broadside, to bear the shock of a violent and dangerous sea, that sometimes breaks in and does great damage, and the main-sail is often split at such times, as well as by the power of the wind; and the quick­ness of the ship's rolling motion, from the ascending and descending side of a high wave, acts with more or less force in proportion to the bigness of the sails to split them. Facts from experience are the only confirmation of a practice being right or wrong.

A ship bound from the East-Indies to Europe, late in the season, was five weeks beating round the Cape of Good-Hope against westerly storms; when, to preserve and keep the ship from rolling too much, they often laid her to, under a whole main-sail with the fore-sail a-back in the brails, when the above-mentioned bad custom split their main-sails faster than they could repair them, till they had none to bring to the yard, but were obliged to wait till they were mended, and they split again in less time than was taken up in mending them; during which time they commonly laid to, under the mizen, when, for want of a little more sail to steady her amongst the waves, she became more exposed to those dangers above mentioned, laboring with a more quick jerking motion, and deeper roll­ing in the sea; and they found the want of the main-sail, which is the most material sail upon a wind, to take the advantage at such times, when the wind varied so as to make slants, by which only they got round the Cape.

On a Ship under lower Stay-sails and Mizen in a Storm.

FOR the reason now mentioned; some old commanders have from long experience found it much better (instead of laying the ship to in this manner) first to secure and hand the main-sail, and if the gale increased, handed the fore-sail, reefed and balanced the mizen, and the mizen, main, fore, and fore-top-mast stay-sails kept set, as they might have done in the India­man, which would have been much to the ease of both ship and men.

On the Advantages of a Ship being kept under lower Stay-sails and Mizen instead of lying to in a Storm.

FROM what has been said it may with justice be concluded, that a ship laid to with the helm a-lee, must be constantly com­ing to, and falling off from the wind, more or less in propor­tion to her head and stern-way; so that when a ship is laid to in a storm, and the power of the high waves are added to the wind, she must naturally run up too near the wind by her head-way, and then both wind and waves unite to give her stern-way which makes her fall round off, and throws her stern up against the wind and waves which then act very powerfully against her tender parts, till she gets head-way again, and makes the ship uneasy, and laborsome, to a dangerous degree, as above men­tioned. To avoid this, I strongly recommend to keep the ship under-way, as it may be called, with the lower stay-sails, with the reefed and balanced mizen and the yards braced sharp and full, which will certainly contribute greatly towards producing the following advantages. By this method a ship may be kept with so much head-way upon her, as to be under the command of the helm, to steer her nearly to a course, six points from the wind, which ought by all means to be endeavored after to keep her bow (that bold and strongest part) pointing to the waves, where they can do her the least damage, and this makes the ship at the same time much easier and livelier in the sea, than being laid to, as above mentioned. These small sails are handy and strong compared with the mainsail, being commonly made of equally strong canvass, and proportionably less liable to be split, either by the wind or waves, and can be set or taken in [Page 72] easily with safety, and stand so flat, and fairly divided from the bowsprit end to the stern, that they tend greatly to steady the ship, as well as ease all the masts, yards, and rigging, from jerking and chaffing in her rolling, and preserving the main-sail and fore-sail, the two most material sails that are to be depended upon on some extraordinary occasion that may require their be­ing set and carried upon a wind in bad weather. For these rea­sons, where ships do not wear and use main and fore, stay-sails in common, I would recommend to have them as ready to be bent and set as possible on these occasions, having hanks upon the stays, and gromets upon the sails for this purpose.

On Bearing away in a Storm, to Scud before the Wind and Waves.

WHEN the waves run high, and sudden necessity requires to bear away, it should be considered that the low head-sails, which the ship may be wared under, when she comes before the wind, may be becalmed by the height of the waves, which may break violently against the stern, and fill the deck with water; but that loftier sails being set would give the ship more way through the water. There was an instance in a ship going under her lower sails upon a wind in a storm, when the ship and all things gave way so much that they were obliged to bear away before the wind, and the lower sails they had wore under were becalmed by the height of the waves, when the ship was in the hollow part of the sea, which came running against the stern with great violence and filled the deck with water. This made some of the crew cry out that they should founder. The Captain ordered close reefed top-sails to be set. These being high, catched the wind and continued drawing full, increased the ship's way so much, that the waves could not reach her with half the force they did before, and gave the ship time to rise and fall gently with them, without ship­ping much water. This proves the advantage, nay, even the necessity of having a close reefed main top-sail ready to set when going to scud before high waves.

On Sailing Large or before the Wind in Squalls.

PROCEEDING in squally weather must be left to the judgment and prudence of the officer that has the com­mand, to act as the circumstances and the situation of the ship and the crew will admit, to run more or less risk in carrying more or less sail accordingly. Experience has oft­en shewn it is not sufficient that a ship can be got before the wind at the time of a heavy squall with much sail set, which may endanger not only the masts and sails, but the ship may be so over pressed with sail as to put it out of the power of the helm and the best helm's-man to steer her from broach­ing to, which may prove fatal to the whole. All unnecessary during risks of every kind, when there is no pressing occa­sion to require such, should be avoided and condemned as the greatest folly; for there can be but little lost and much may be saved by lowering or taking in sail in good time, when a ship is sailing large or before the wind in time of a squall, as sails may soon and easily be set again when the squall is over, which may be the means of preventing great loss of damage.

On Scudding or Sailing before the Wind in a Storm.

MANY precautions are necessary on this occasion; eve­ry thing abaft, and about the mizen mast, should be taken in, and stowed away as snug as possible; even the mizen gaff being lowered down may be an advantage. If the waves run high, it may be absolutely necessary for the reasons gi­ven to have a close reefed main top-sail set, though only scud­ding before the wind for the ease of the ship. But when carrying a pressing sail to make the most of a storm, great care should be taken that suitable sails only are set, and they should be trimmed to the best advantage, so that the ship may be kept under the command of her helm to steer her, which should be strictly observed by the commanding officer of the watch; for it should be considered, that a ship at such times may be over pressed and plunged so deep into the sea forward with sail, that instead of dividing the particles of water on [Page 74] each side in an easy way to open a passage through it, the full parts of the bow, and other stops not designed to be in the water, drive a great body of water above its natural le­vel before her bows, which may increase the resistance a-head to such a degree, that will rather decrease than increase the ship's head-way in proportion to this rise of water, and the stern being lifted up as much as the head is pressed down, the helm must naturally lose so much of its power at the same time, so that when the wind may be going four times as fast as the ship, and the waves as fast again, it is not to be wondered at, that ships are sometimes broached to against the power of the helm. What has been said on this occasion shew the necessity of much care and pains to be taken, both by the officer and helm's-man, as before recommended, and none but the best helm's-men should be admitted to steer at such times; and whenever danger appears from one man's steering, others should be tried, and the sails altered and trim­med to the best advantage, that if possible the ship may be steered without danger of being broached to. A great risk attends relieving the helm's-man, especially in the night, when he that is to take the helm, often comes but half awake from sleep, and takes the helm without examining where it lies at the time, and how far the ship requires it each way to confine her to the course; thus not considering the danger, he at first lets the ship get such a sheer that his best endea­vours cannot stop her from being broached to, or brought by the lee. To prevent which, the helm's-man that is to be relieved, if he has steered well, should not quit the helm before he has shewed and made known to him that is to re­lieve, the particulars of her trim, how she may be best steer­ed at that time. It is well known that there is great differ­ence in ships steering, according to their built and trim. Full built ships when deep loaded, are often difficult to be steered sailing large in a gale of wind. I have been told of some that could not be steered the intended course before the wind, but would broach to each way in spite of their utmost endeavours, and have been obliged to lie to with a fair wind. Therefore every hint that has the least reasonable appearance to remedy this evil, deserves attention and should be tried. On this occasion, when a ship cannot be steered [Page 75] right before the wind without broaching to, suppose a trial to be made to steer her with the wind two or three points, first on one quarter, then on the other, a little time each way, this reduces the danger to only being liable to broach to one way, that is, to windward, which may be much easier guarded against by the weather helm this one way than both, and to sup­pose the ship to be steered with the wind on the larboard quar­ter with a close reefed main top-sail set and braced up with the larboard braces, and the head sails trimmed sharp the other way, with the starboard braces and the helm a-weather, which evidently tends greatly to counteract and get the bet­ter of those causes which occasion a ship to broach to, and may keep her under the command of the helm. But if this method should not answer, there is another which I think could not fail of success; that is, to veer out and tow right over the stern a tow-line or hawser, or as much of a cable end, as may be found sufficient to keep the ship before the wind, and prevent her broaching to. At such times as these, when a ship cannot be steered to the course that is ordered it should be recommended to the officer of the watch, to take particu­lar notice which way she goes most from her course, to make an allowance and mark it down accordingly.

On Cunning the Helm's-man.

THIS custom is useful in general, even when done by a quarter-master; it answers the good purpose to confine the thoughts and attention of the helm's-man to his duty, as he is obliged to repeat the cun, though he with reason often moves the helm contrary to the cun, in order to confine the ship to her course by such management, as before mentioned; the good helm's-man, after a little experience of the ship's trim, must be allowed to know best what helm is required to steer a direct course. But when sailing is dangerous by bad weather, squalls, high waves, or other dangers that may suddenly ap­pear, then cunning becomes a matter of great importance, and the cun of the superior officer, or whom he may appoint, should only be attended to, and answered by the movements of the helm as well as by words, to avoid the danger, or to help to ease the ship to rise and fall gently with the waves, [Page 76] as it is well known much to ease a ship in her laboring mo­tion, to luff her up with the helm a-lee at the approach of a high steep wave when sailing close by the wind. But to sup­pose a ship at the same time sailing two points from the wind, it is disputed whether it is best that she should be luffed up to, or bear away from a dangerous wave.

On Sailing and Cunning, with high Winds and Waves right up­on the Beam.

THIS way of sailing in my opinion deserves particular no­tice, because it is more exposed to danger and damage than any other way of sailing; for a ship upon a wind, the waves high, is suited with sail accordingly, and there is so little head-way upon her that she may be luffed up to a dangerous wave, and by that made much easier. And when sailing large, a ship runs from the waves and weakens their force. A ship lying to, and driving to leeward, yields and gives some way to an high wave when it strikes her, which may a little abate its bad effects; but when carrying a pressing sail with the wind upon the beam, which is common, because it is counted a fair wind, a fast sailing ship is reckoned then to sail faster through the water than any other way with the same wind, as she does not recede from the wind or waves, and makes little or no lee way; but this exposes a ship to all the violent effects of dan­gerous high steep waves, which may strike and break with their utmost force upon the broadside to windward, whilst the ship's great head-way through the water makes the greatest re­sistance to prevent her from yielding, or giving the least way to leeward; and when a ship is lifted up broadside, with so quick a motion, from the bottom to the top of an high, steep, mountainous wave, it is not to be wondered at, that ship, men, or materials may receive great damage at such times. And the greater the ship, and the more water she draws, the more liable she is to damage. Smaller vessels give more way to the waves when struck. It may be disputed (as mentioned above) whether a ship sailing in this situation should be luffed up to, or bear away from a dangerous wave coming on the beam. Reason as well as experience teaches us that the helm should be put a-weather, to bring the approaching wave as far aft as [Page 77] possible, to lessen its force, by the ship's running forward and giving the more way from it, rather than to luff up with the helm a-lee to meet it; for so much sail and head-way upon the ship must increase the stroke of the wave, and may produce a violent and dangerous pitching motion. But to do justice on this occasion, it must be allowed that ships in general carry a pressing sail in this way, and are apt to gripe and carry the helm nearly hard a-weather, to steer the intended course; so that without this is noticed and guarded against by the officer of the watch, by having only a suitable sail set, and properly trimmed, it may be out of the power of the helm when hard a-weather, to make the ship ware fast enough to avoid the bad effects of a dangerous wave when perceived to be coming up­on the beam. After all that can be said on this way of sailing, when the waves run high, I look upon the danger so great, that it ought to be avoided as much as possible, and it may be com­mendable to alter the course so as to steer with the wind and waves either a point before or a point abaft the beam, or for a time each way, if the occasion should require that nicety.

On Carrying Sail against Head Waves.

GREAT caution is necessary on this occasion, to prevent the damage that may be done by it, sometimes even to pitch­ing away the bowsprit, masts, &c. And as the waves in the open sea, do not immediately cease with the wind that raised them, but often continue to run the same way for a great while after the wind is changed even to the opposite point of the compass; therefore when a sudden change of wind happens, care should be taken not to be too forward in setting or carrying sail, so as to give the ship too much head-way against the old waves before they are fallen; for it may pitch the bowsprit un­der water, which has often been done to a dangerous degree. Sometimes head waves will rise against and reach a ship a long time before the wind that raised them, which may make it equally dangerous to press the ship with too much sail against them.

On Loosing and Setting the Sails.

IN loosing square sails when it blows fresh, it should be a [Page 78] constant rule to loose the lee yard-arm before the weather yard-arm, to prevent the danger that the people to leeward are [...] exposed to, of being thrown from the yard by the sail [...] up over their heads. In setting the top-sails or top-gallant-sails upon a wind, when it blows fresh, it is an approved [...] ­thod to haul home the lee sheet first, and if the sail be [...] shaking by the weather brace the weather sheet may be [...] got home; but when sailing large, the weather sheet of [...] sails are most commonly hauled home first. In setting [...] main-sail and fore-sail, if the wind requires it, the tacks [...] hauled down first; but in box-hauling or waring, the [...] may be hauled nearly flat aft, whilst the sails shake with the wind upon the quarter, and the tacks may be got down. [...] let us suppose a ship has proceeded so far on her passage, as to draw near to danger, or to make her designed land-fall.

On drawing near to Danger, or making a Land-fall.

ON these occasions it should be considered before hand, what it most depends upon, to keep clear of the danger, or to make a good land-fall. If they have regular soundings at a great dis­tance from it, then the lead may be the surest guide; but if it be steep to, without soundings, then the latitude if known, and good look out, with the ship properly prepared for it as has been mentioned, may contribute greatly towards safety. When [...] ­ing to cross dangerous latitudes, where projecting points [...] land, or shoals may be in the way, or in making small islands such as Cane de Verd and Canary islands, it is certainly [...] wrong to [...] without much caution in the night, or in [...] weather with a crowd of sail, on presumption that the ship [...] enough to the westward, to go clear of them, which has [...] ­sioned many fatal losses, they being deceived by the [...] easterly current that runs in this track, which in my [...] is the principal cause that ships so often make more long [...] in coming from Europe to the West-Indies than they do in re­turning home, which has been mentioned as the case of on that tried the difference of the log-line being marked seven fa­thom when sailing to the westward, which proved to be too [...] and its being marked eight fathom in returning to the eastward which proved so much too long as had nearly caused the [...] [Page 79] the ship. It is the latitude only when known by observation, and not the longitude that is to be depended upon, for the ship's being near or clear of danger. To make a good land-fall, if the situation and circumstances of wind and weather permit that a ship can sail with a leading wind true east or west, to the place of the designed land-fall, it is an approved method to get into that latitude in good time, and endeavour by all possible means to get observations, to make proper allowance for lee-way, va­riation of the compass, bad steerage, currents or tides, if known, to keep the ship as near as possible in this designed latitude. When got into the designed latitude, the uncertainty of the longitude make the distance to be run as uncertain; therefore in the day and clear weather, all the sail that is possible with safety should be car­ried; but in the night or thick weather, if it is thought prudent to run it sho [...]d only be with such sails, as the officer and people on deck can look round them, and work the ship to avoid the danger in whatever manner it may appear. Notwithstanding these rules and precautions, in land-falls people are very apt to be deceived by tides and in cloudy weather, by taking one place for another. That a ship sailing against a tide or current, which takes her on either bow, is the cause that alters her course, must be evident to every one who knows that when a ship is sailing with a lead­ing wind in a narrow river or channel against a strong tide or current, it requires nice steerage right against the stream, to keep her in a fair way, for if the stream is set to take her on the starboard bow she will soon sheer upon the larboard shore; if on the larboard bow, upon the starboard shore, &c. so that the same cause will have the same effect in all narrow seas or channels in proportion to their breadth. Where the tide or current runs strong, it may be highly necessary, in the night or thick weather, to endeavour to steer right against the stream whilst it runs against the ship, as circumstances may require, to keep the ship in mid channel, or in a fair way till day light, or until the weather is so clear as to permit to see the danger at a sufficient distance, to run across the stream boldly for the land, to know the ship's real situation, which may be a means to avoid such dangers as above mentioned, and to proceed forward with more safety.

On Getting a Pilot on Board in bad Weather at Sea.

THIS is sometimes attended with so much danger that the pilots rather than to run the risk of boarding a ship from their own boats sometimes go no nearer to the ship than to have a small rope thrown to or veered a-stern to them; which they make fast about the pilot's body under his arm-pits, he then goes overboard into the sea when as near the ship as they dare venture, and is hauled on board the ship by the rope. It is a bad and common practice, in many ships, when the pilot vessel has got near them, to lay the ship to, with the helm a-lee and let her drive with the main or fore-top-sail a-back, thinking they may be boarded by the pilot's vessel without danger. But no sensible pilot, that knows what would be the consequence, will offer to board at such a time whilst the ship lies to. But if an unexperienced pilot boards the ship upon the weather quarter, which [...] much the best for the purpose, the ship then heeling to leeward, keeps the yards, masts and rigging clear from getting entangled; yet it is well known from expe­rience, that it is more difficult to board to windward than to lee-ward, and that a stroke by a wave from a small vessel against a large one, will do much more damage, than a stroke by a large vessel against a small one, because the large vessel resists and does not give way to the blow of the small one, which would yield and give way to a stroke from the large one, in proportion to the difference of their weight; for which reason a ship should always be boareded on the lee side; but to do it whilst she lies to, is attended with too much danger to risk, when the ship has any motion from the wave; for the helm being a-lee the ship may get stern-way, and fall round off from the wind, whilst the pilot's vessel is boarding, which may occasion great damage, and, for want of a stern rope, rowing boats when boarding are apt to get athwart the hawse and sink at such times.

The best method for this purpose in my opinion is, when the pilot vessel is got near but still far enough to windward, for the ship to sail right forward about a point from the wind, with the after yards braced sharp up, the main yard a-back out of the way, and sail enough, especially stay-sails, to keep good head-way upon the ship, the more the better, so that she has only a little less way than the pilot vessel which may shoot up under [Page 81] the ship's lee quarter where a stern-rope, and one past aft from forward should be ready and thrown them, by which they may tow and steer their vessels clear from damage under the lee quarter, sheltered by the ship from the waves, and may watch for a smooth sea, and sheer to the ship at pleasure to board the pilot and sheer clear again with the least risk possible.

On Pilots.

A PILOT's qualifications should as much as possible be every way equal to the dangers and difficulties that attend his navigation, and should know where the shoals extend to a great distance, and where the channels are narrow, in­tricate, and shallow, where and when ships are exposed to dangerous waves, life as well as property being at risk. None should be admitted to take upon them this important charge, but such as from experience and practice, can give a ready verbal account of the course and distance from one place to another, the flowing and setting of the tides, depth of water, land marks, buoys, beacons, lights, &c. and should not only be seamen enough to work and manage a ship to the best advantage in fine weather, but capable in difficult situations to form a right judgment what is best to be done for safety, and what can be reasonably expected for the ship and people to do on every occasion. When a pilot is found defective in seamanship, or capacity to judge and act with skill and prudence, on difficult or dangerous occasions, it is certainly the duty of the commander and proper officers to be upon their guard, and not to give up their own judg­ment and themselves tamely to a pilot, of whose conduct they have no assurance, which has often occasioned great damage and losses. Therefore when a pilot's capacity is not known, his behaviour in management and design of pro­ceeding should be noticed, and treated with more or less confidence, as his conduct seems to deserve; and when it plainly appears that his conduct cannot be depended upon, then self-preservation, the first law of nature, makes it a case of necessity and point of duty for the commander to interfere with the pilot and trust him no farther than is consistent with safety, and not be afraid of that false common notion, that [Page 82] if the commander of a ship interferes in the pilot's duty, he makes himself answerable for the consequence to the in­surers; for it is quite otherwise: the insurers insure the commander's conduct, therefore instead of being blamed by the insurers, he certainly deserves their thanks for endea­voring to prevent loss or damage that is likely to be the consequence of a thoughtless blundering pilot that has fall­en to his lot; which was once my case when we had a very narrow escape. But pilots like other ranks of men, must be allowed to have different capacities and dispositions, and according to their practice, must be more or less capable of their duty, and consequently among the many, there must be a variety of good, bad, and indifferent; yet the respecta­ble character of a pilot on the whole, entitles them to be treated with all the respect and encouragement their use­fulness deserves, so that when a pilot proves deficient in his duty, and a better is not to be had, to make the most of him, it is certainly best to endeavour by all possible means to help and advise him with candor to what may be thought best to be done according to circumstances; and if his spi­rits appear to fail him in a dangerous passage, or situation, and no remedy is left but to go forward, he should then be cheered and encouraged, to keep up his spirits, and not to let fear nor intoxication with liquor get the better of him, which may be of equal bad consequence. But the most danger is from those inconsiderate and unexperienced pilots who think a ship may be managed and conducted with equal case and safety among shoals, as their own small ves­sels to which they have been accustomed; therefore they think there is no occasion to wait for the tide, day light, or clear weather; but to push forward at all hazards, tho' it may be such weather that no lights, marks, buoys, bea­cons or dangerous shoals in the way, can be seen nor guarded against by a compass course, nor by the lead at a sufficient distance to keep clear of them. It is natural to suppose that a commander should know the trim and properties of his ship from experience, and what depend­ance may be put on her, for sailing, steering, staying, waring, or riding at anchor; and how they can work and manage her on extraordinary occasions, in narrow and dangerous chan­nels, [Page 83] and should form a better judgment what the ship and crew can do, than a strange pilot who may be a brave man and know his way very well, yet for want of experience, may be much inferior to the commander in working and managing the ship; where this is the case, it should be agreed that the pilot should shew the way and point out the dangers, whilst the commander works and manages the ship to keep clear of them; which in my opinion may often contribute greatly to prevent misfortunes. But when pilots are known to be thoroughly qualified to work and manage a ship as their navigation requires, then the commander has only to see that the pilot's orders are obeyed.

On keeping a clean Bottom.

THE great difference this makes in a ship's steering, working, and sailing, makes it a matter of such importance, that all possible means should be used to prevent the ship's bottom getting foul; and the best method I know of for this purpose, is the cask scrubber, which may be used when at anchor, or in calm weather at sea. They are made of two slips of board about an inch thick and twelve inches broad, between three and four feet long, and joined at the ends with two slips of board of the same width and thick­ness: this frame is just wide enough to take in a ten-gallon cask which stands in the middle athwartships, and is lashed at each head to the sides of the frame; the square spaces left between the sides of the cask and the ends of the frame, are filled with birch broom stuff, projecting about six inch­es without the frame, and wedged fast against the ends of the frame with long wedges drove in between the cask and two slips of board that are made with t [...]nons at each end which slides backwards and forwards in grooves cut in the side pieces of the frame; the birch ends is cut for scrub­bing the bottom quite close down to the keel. Two of these are generally made and fastened together with irons that go with joints, for the advantage of bending so as to fit any part of the bottom. In using this scrubber a block is lashed under the bowsprit end, and another under the driver boom, rigged out right aft, and a single rope [Page 84] reeved in these blocks is made fast to slings which go thro' eye-bolts, three of which are fixed on the outsides of each of these frames; this rope thus reeved, is just long enough to veer and haul the scrubber along the bottom fore and aft close down to the keel; and another rope is bent to the lower part of the scrubber and hauled tight under the bottom, and made fast to the inside of the boat's main thoft, when the upper part of the scrubber is even with the water's edge a-midships on the other side; then the people are to walk fore and aft with the rope until the scrubber comes up to the water's edge each way, the boat moving the same way with the scrubber, the people pushing her along with their hands against the side of the vessel until the first depth is thought to be clean enough, then the peo­ple in the boat by their rope haul the scrubber a depth lower, by which rope and the empty cask it is confined and pressed to the ship's bottom at the different depths, until the ship is scrubbed clean down to, and even the keel itself by the rope going fore and aft under it. Thus may a vessel be kept clean, which must certainly be an advantage in long voyages. When iron work is not to be got to unite two frames together, one may be used alone, though not to quite so great an advantage as when double.

On dangerous and sudden Leeks breaking out.

AS soon as the pumps are manned, and set to work, the utmost endeavors should be immediately used, and all pos­sible means tried, to find out and stop the leek, before the people are fatigued with pumping, which gives a much better chance for safety, than continual pumping, which may prove ineffectual, without endeavoring to stop the leak. When a ship springs a-leak, so that it is fatiguing to the crew or dangerous, it will be of great advantage to take the sprit-sail, or some other sail of equal strength which can be as conveniently spared: stitch the sail over well with oakum, and with ropes to the clews and earings, apply it to the leak when found, and it will seldom fail stopping it by the oak­um getting into the seams. When ships are weak and work out the oakum, so as to make dangerous leaks between wind [Page 85] and water, canvas, or leather; with oakum under it will an­swer much better to be nailed over the leak than sheet-lead, which is often used, and which is apt to be broken by the ship's working.

On a Ship overset or laid on her Side at Sea.

TO recover and get a ship upright, from this dismal and dangerous situation, with the least damage possible, is cer­tainly a task that deserves the attention of all. The most common method is to cut away the masts; especially tho main and mizen masts, in order to make her ware, and bring the wind on the other side; but reason as well as experience, has often proved that this desperate and expensive method, has not answered the purpose; for the ship's hull in that position, greatly becalms the masts, especially the lower masts and sails, and prevents the rudder from having such effect upon the water as to make the ship ware. If ground is to be reached by any means, the lee anchors should be immedi­ately let go, which will surely bring the head round, and get the wind on the other side, which acting on the masts and sails, will rather assist than prevent her recovering. But in deep water where anchors can be of no service, I would recommend, that if a tow-line, hawser, or cable end, can be readily come at, and the driver-boom, hen-coops, and other bulky things can be slung by the middle with ropes, and made fast to it, or even the driver, or any other sail, with the clews stopped up so as to make a drag sail, it should be done, and they be veered away with a long scope over the lee quar­ter, to make such great stop waters as to make the ship ware, and bring the wind on that quarter that is down, that the ship may be brought to on the other tack, and the sails trimmed so as to get her upright again without cutting away the masts, which nothing can justify out the utmost necessity, to save the ship from foundering, because of the great distress the ship is brought under for want of her masts, especially her lower masts, when she may have a long run to her designed port, or to a place where this great damage can be repaired.

To make a Ship Steer that has lost her Fore-mast.

TO do this must be of consequence to a ship meeting with this misfortune in a dangerous situation. Therefore I venture to give my opinion that this may be done by the above men­tioned method of veering a hawser or cable end over the lee quarter, but without any stop-waters to it, only the nun buoys, david, or any spare spars, masts, or yards, lashed along it, to buoy it up from taking the ground in case of coming into shoal water in little wind. This will act with great power with the helm to make the ship ware and steer at pleasure, and it is com­mon in many ships to carry a yard across the stern with a block at each end for a driver-boom, this I would recommend for this purpose, and the hawser or cable to be veered out abaft the mizen shrouds over it, to guy it more or less from the quar­ter according as the ship may have occasion to sail, that makes her gripe more or less on the helm, so as to require it, and it may be easily shifted from side to side to answer sailing upon both tacks, to be guyed more to leeward in proportion to the ship's griping, and when sailing before the wind to secure it over the middle of the stern will prevent the ship broaching to against the helm both ways. And this would answer to make a deep loaded ship, that steered bad, to steer well, and prevent her broaching to either way as some will do in spite of the best helm's-man.

On Steering a Ship that has lost her Rudder.

THE method used, and found from experience to answer by two British men of war and published, requires much time and materials which are not always in the ship; and ships often lose their rudders in narrow channels where the utmost dispatch is required.

Therefore I would propose a hawser or cable end, with the nun buoys, spare spars, masts, &c. lashed along it to buoy it up in case of coming into shoal water, and a boom rigged out on each side close aft, athwart the stern, with a block on each, at equal distances as far as they can be supported from the stern, and a block on the rail or gunwhale, exactly opposite to the middle of the barrel of the wheel, where the steering rope [Page 87] marked with a rope yarn in the middle is to be taken with three or five turns round the wheel, when the midship spoke, and the mark on the rope is right up, then the two ends to be pass­ed across from the under part of the wheel, and received thro' the blocks on each side and made fast to the hawser, or cable that is to be towed a-stern exactly a-midships, and as tight as it can well be got clear of the stern, and veer and heave freely from side to side as the steering the ship with the trimming of the sails on this occasion may require. The wheel rope lead­ing under the barrel of the wheel on this occasion, gives a great advantage; because the wheel is to be hove round the same way as when the rudder was in its place, so that the ship may be cunned starboard and port, luff and no near, hard a-weather, or hard a-lee, as occasion may require it, for turning the wheel to put the helm a-port, heaves the towing machine up to the block on the starboard quarter, which stops water on that side, and brings the ship's head that way, and acts with the same power when hove over to the other side, &c. which is the readiest and best make-shift that I know for this purpose when no other help can be had. And to suppose this misfortune to happen to a vessel that has not a steering wheel, it requires no great labor or ingenuity to six a make-shift wheel of a boat's windlass or winch, or other materials that may be found on board, and contrive to fix it abaft the binnacle as the best place to answer this purpose: but when it happens that help and as­sistance can be got from other vessels on this occasion, two small vessels, one with all her sail set leading and towing in a fair way with a rope a-head of the ship which must have but lit­tle sail set, whilst the other with a rope from each quarter, is towed a-stern of the ship without any, or but occasional sail ready to set to steer, and sheer her with the helm on each quar­ter of the ship, as the occasion requires, to confine her to follow the leading vessel in a fair war, till towed into safety.

On Danger of a Lee Shore in a Gale of Wind when the Waves run high.

OF all distresses at sea these are generally allowed to be the greatest; and most people pity seamen when in a gale of wind, but none so much as those who know from experience the [Page 88] hardships they go through in cold weather, long dark winter nights, dangerous situations, and near a lee shore, especially if it is a rocky one. When the waves run high it is most to be dreaded, and the utmost endeavors should be used to keep from it, because it gives little or no chance of saving either ship or the lives of even the best of swimmers. To avoid such fatal con­sequences as these, which often attend ships going upon a lee shore, every possible effort of mind and body should be exerted and tried to preserve and keep the ships off from the shore, as being the only chance to save the lives of the crew, and the property that is under their charge; by which conduct only it is that the hardy and brave officers and seamen can be distinguished from the soft, cowardly, lazy, skulk­ing lubbers, who give themselves and the ship up in a cowardly manner to go on shore, rather than undergo the hardship, to be obliged to contend with the weather, wind and waves, which is certainly their duty to do as long as there is the least appearance of a chance by any means whatever to avoid the dreadful danger; and by which only it is, that they can reasonably expect Providence to favor them; for it is an allowed maxim in common life, that it is to little purpose to endeavor to help those who will not endeavor to help themselves, and too often are met with at sea dastardly skulkers, who, when obliged to be exposed to the weather, for want of resolution to rouse and exert themselves, become so feeble and helpless that they perish and die with cold, when the brave man at the same time may be sweating with strug­gling manfully in the discharge of his duty. To keep a ship off a dangerous lee shore so long as she can carry such sail a will give her good way through the water upon a wind is cer­tainly the best method to try what can be done by carrying sails and also to reduce all top-hamper that holds wind as much as possible; for if the shore proves so deep or the bottom so rocks as not to afford safe anchorage, then safety may depend entire­ly on carrying sail. And suppose a ship is found imbayed, [...] that she will not clear the shore on one tack, and the waves run so high that she will not stay, yet she may be box-hauled as has been directed; therefore despair should not take place but an example of spirit and resolution be shewn by the offi­cers, after having consulted together, and the people plainly to do [Page 89] what is resolved upon, and that there is no other chance left to save the ship and their lives, but to carry all the sail possi­ble, to work the ship in the most perfect manner; and when she refuses to stay, box-haul her. Suppose in this situation it is found that the ship will not clear the shore on either tack, and after the utmost endeavors she is perceived to lose ground; as there is no anchorage, there is no other means but to conti­nue turning to the last as the wind may abate, [...] may vary or change in your favor, which has been sometimes the case with vessels when they have given themselves over as loft: but when there is clear anchoring ground, a good distance from the shore, and sailing proves ineffectual to keep clear of it, then the chief dependence must be upon the ground tackle rightly applied to the best advantage; and it is in common reckoned a great dis­grace to let a ship go on shore with any ground tackle left on board that might have been usefully applied. Suppose then the ship properly prepared, you should let go a catch anchor and towline bent like a buoy rope to the crown of the stream anchor, and the inner end of the stream cable bent to the crown of the sheet or best bower anchor, with as long a scope of ca­ble as possible can be contrived to make the ship ride safe and easy, as has been particularly recommended. But where it is known, or found by sounding with the lead armed with tallow, that the ground is foul, then no more cable should be veered out than necessity requires to bring the ship up, to ride with as short a scope as possible; because the cable is liable to be chafed, or cut in two by the rocks; if that happens there is the more room a-stern and a better chance for a second or a third anchor, trying to the last moment all possible means to keep the ship from the shore. When the water is so deep that the anchoring ground lies but a little more than cable's length from the shore, then all the anchors should be let go in the manner described in pape 37. And when the situation of the place requires it, no hesitation should be made, but immediately cut away all the masts ex­cept the foremast and bowsprit; and the fore-top-mast stay-sail must be made to hoist to the fore-mast head, which will not on­ly make the ship ride with less strain upon the anchors and ca­bles, but if they give way, she will be better prepared when ne­cessity requires it to be done, as the last refuge, to run and lay [...]e ship on shore to the best advantage, in order to save all the [Page 90] lives and property that is possible to be saved, rather than to let the ship founder or strike the ground at an anchor by the tide falling, &c. which affords no chance of saving either lives or property. It is well known from reason as well as from expe­rience that to let a ship drive at random broadside to, on a moderate rising shore, with her main-mast standing, when she comes to strike hard upon the ground, by the waves running high, will soon overset her on her broadside, and cause the hatches to blow off, then the waves breaking in at the hatch­ways compress the confined air within her so as to add the pow­er of blowing to that of beating the ship to pieces, which must afford little or no chance to save either lives or property that is liable to be destroyed or spoiled by the waves, therefore likely to prove a fatal and total loss. I would recommend as the best conduct on such an occasion, that the main and mizen mast be first cut away, then to run right before the wind and waves, with all the head-way and sails that can possibly be set end on upon the shore, to make the ship free herself the more, and to run the higher and faster upon the ground, so that by the ad­vantage of the tide falling, should it be up when she goes on, she may soon be set so fast as to be out of the power of the waves to hurt her much; by this management in my opinion not on­ly all the lives, but the ship and cargo may be often saved, which would be all lost by letting her go on shore at random. Notwithstanding a ship may be thus successfully run on shore, and set fast, with little or no damage to her hull, and no danger to be apprehended till the next high water if the storm continues so long; yet people too often let their fears overcome their rea­son, and being in too great a hurry to quit the ship and attempt­ing to go thro' the waves to the shore, often lose their lives, and the boats they go in; when if they would consider and stay with patience till the tide is at the lowest, they may get on shore with little or no risk; and where the tide rises and falls a great deal, the ship may become quite dry at low water, which time must be allowed to be the safest and best to land, whether the ship dries or not; for the water is then smoothest, and there will be less way to go in it; therefore, if possible, the people should be restrained from quitting the ship with the boats till towards low water, and when got safe on shore, it would be absolutely necessary to preserve the boats, if possible, by haul­ing

On saving Lives from a Ship lost on a Lee Shore.

TIMES, circumstances, and situations are so various, that it is very difficult to write what may be to the purpose on this most melancholy occasion; and besides, for which I have great reason to be thankful to Providence, I never have been ship­wrecked, and therefore cannot pretend to write from experi­ence; yet under all these disadvantages, as I think it is abso­lutely necessary that it should be attempted by somebody, I will therefore, sailor-like, attempt to do my best. Success in many situations may depend greatly on assistance from people on shore; but this can't be expected in the night, and at other times is very uncertain, therefore the utmost endeavors should be used to contrive and try what can be done on board a ship that may be supposed to be bulged, or broke so much upon the ground as to be past all recovery: and when the current or tide runs so strong between the wreck and the shore as to pre­vent booms, masts, &c. with ropes made fast to them, being veered on shore, in order to get ropes passed to make hauling lives, or travellers, from the ship to the shore, as necessity re­quires, to save the people, I would recommend a kite to be made as follows: take two pieces of board three or four inch­es broad and seven or eight feet long, the middle of one nailed right across the other a little more than one third of the length, which forms what may be called the head part of the kite; then span it tight round the ends with line, and few a piece of light sail over it, then sling it with line from the four ends of the board with a span from the middle to strengthen that part where the bite of the rope designed to be sent on shore, is to be stopped to the slings, and at the bottom or tail part of the kite, about two fathoms from the end of the rope, to which a creeper or grappling is to be bent, that will likewise answer the purpose of a balancing tail to make the kite mount and fly in a gale of wind with a rope, as well as a school boy's common paper kite will do with twine in moderate weather. When this kite may have flown far enough to reach the shore, a small rope or line which must be fastened to one or the other sides or wings of the kite must be hauled tight, and the rope by which it is raised slackened, this will naturally turn the wing to which the line is fastened pointing to the wind and the kite [Page 93] [...]o longer acted upon forceably by the wind will naturally fall [...]o the ground, where the grapling will hold sufficiently perhaps [...]or a man or two to pull themselves along on some kind of [...]aft, made either by lashing two empty casks together or any other things that may be easily come at on board almost any vessel. If there is no current to prevent booms, &c. from [...]rifting directly on shore, then some spars should be tied by [...]he middle and let drift to the shore, when being throwed up­on the shore they may answer as well as the kite to assist some [...]n getting on shore to prepare a better way for the rest; and [...]f the shore should be rocky it will hold the faster, by which means I have been informed of a crew that were saved when they had given themselves over as lost.

On making fresh Water at Sea.

MANY attempts have been made to get a supply of this ne­cessary article of support, among which the following have been found to answer, viz. Take a cask with one head in it, and a false head made to fit a little below the bulge, there to rest on pieces fixed on the inside for that purpose; this false head must be bored full of small holes, and in the middle a large one about an inch diametre; to this hole must be fitted the small end of a funnel made of canvas or leather, which must reach above the top of the barrel or cask; on this false head must be put a quantity of sand, leaving sufficient room at top for the fresh water to stand, which will make its way up through the sand, being much lighter than the salt which con­tinues below and may occasionally be drawn off by having a spoil in the side near the lower head, and the vacancy between the heads filled by more water from the sea poured through the [...]eathern or canvas funnel.

Another method which in cold climates has been found to answer tolerably well; is that of freezing of water. It is well known that the fresher particles of water freeze first: They set water to freeze in tubs or casks, and collect the ice as fast as it is made into another, leaving or throwing over the water after some quantity of ice has been collected from it, and supplying the casks with more from the sea, until they have got a sufficient quantity of ice which they thaw and set to freeze again, col­lecting [Page 94] the ice as before; by which means, in two or three times thawing and freezing, it will be rendered fresh enough for use, and may be made to support life tolerably well. All islands of ice which float in the sea are fresh, and when thawed are fit for use.

To convey a just idea of the method of distilling fresh water from salt water, let us suppose a small pot with a hole in a lid that is fitted very close, then the pot being filled with sea water, the fresh vapor which arises from the sea water as it boils, will issue out at the hole in the lid; into that hole fit the mouth of a tobacco-pipe, letting the stem have a little inclination downwards, then will the vapor of fresh water take its course through the stem of the tube, and may be col­lected by fitting a proper vessel to its end; this method will serve to convey an idea how the fresh water is separated from the salt water, so that such materials as the ship affords may be adapted to this purpose. Dr. Irvin contrived a tin tube of suit­able dimensions to the lid of a common kettle used for boiling provisions: the fresh vapor arising from boiling the sea water in the kettle, passed through the tube into an hogshead, the tube was kept cool by being often wetted with cold water; and by this method a large kettle yielded twenty five gallons in an hour. The vapor which arises from kettles where peas, oat-meal or puddings are boiled, is very wholesome and good for the scorbutic.

Jacob Isaacks, of Newport, Rhode-Island, broker, has in the presence of a number of respectable gentlemen, by a secret that he has discovered, extracted eight pints of fresh water out of ten pints of salt water, equal to spring or rain water, and as light as either, his machinery is such as may be commonly found on board of vessels except a tin tube; he thinks he can make an hundred gallons in a day.

On Provision.

NOTHING can be more dreadful than to be out of provi­sion at sea, without any prospect of being supplied, and all the horrors of starving to death staring men in the face. It was with the greatest pleasure I read the following method of sup­porting life (even without suffering at all from hunger) upon [Page 95] what has been generally thrown away as useless, which are bones after the meat is taken off. It has been proved by the experience of many that one table spoonful of the dust or filings of bones, rasped with a coarse file and put into water, will, after two hours' boiling, make a pint of good nourishing jelly or broth, which being seasoned with salt, &c. will be very palat­able and nourishing. This has been found so very good that it has been used as a delicacy at the tables of the great. The filings entirely dissolve and incorporate with the water; I would therefore recommend to every seaman to furnish himself with a good file or two, and to all commanders when on distant voyages, where there is the least possibility of being short of provisions, to make the cook be careful of the bones and save them; and if a quantity of old bones were procured before sailing and stowed in some dry place in the hold or run of the vessel, they might serve the double purpose of ballast, and pro­vision in case of need, as it is known from experience that bones which to appearance are quite dry, will yield a consider­able quantity of nourishment.

On Recovering drowned Persons.

HAVING carried the ship through all the different situa­tion [...]o which she is liable, according to the best and most approved rules laid down by old experienced seamen, as well as proved by my own experience, I now proceed to the last that can be done to preserve the lives of those useful citizens, the sailors, or indeed any others who may have the misfortune to be under water a considerable time. The following direc­tions have been found from experience to deserve the attention of all that are any way concerned with water affairs, as several per­sons who, after being under water near two hours, and to all appearance entirely dead, have been perfectly recovered. The manner of treating the person is as follows:

When the body is first moved the head should be kept raised up a little and moved as easy as possible, it should be stript and laid in warm blankets and dried thoroughly with hot woolens; if the weather is hot the more free cool air can be got the bet­ter, if it is cold then a warm fire is much the best; but the room should not be crowded, six people are as many as are necessary [Page 96] to be about the body; these should be employed in rubbing the body gently with common salt, bottles filled with hot water, hot bricks or bags of sand heated should be applied to the arm­pits, palms of the hands, soals of the feet, [...] different parts of the body, a warm bath would be of service, or sprinkling the body with warm spirits as they rub instead [...] salt; the nose should be tickled, and snuff, spirits of hartshorn; or any thing that will excite sneezing, should be applied, tobacco smoak should be forced up the fundament as soon as possible, and some down the throat by means of blowing through cloth placed over the bowl of a lighted pipe, and injecting the stem into the body; a person should blow with all his might through a cloth into the mouth of the body, and the chest should be frequently pressed to imitate natural breathing, bellows would answer better than breathing to force wind into the body; as soon as any signs [...] life appear, small quantities of warm spirit and water sweetened [...] be frequently forced into the mouth; these applications should be industriously continued for three or four hours, if life is not restored sooner, as some have been recovered after three hours labor without any appearance of life; bleeding should seldom or ever be applied. Persons affect­ed with severe cold may be restored to life and feeling, by be­ing rubbed all over with snow, especially the extreme parts; if snow is not to be got, put them into cold water, which will an­swer as well; but hot close rooms should by all means be avoid­ed until the person is recovered.